Ismaili Dictionary & Encyclopedia

Etiquette of DrinkingEncyclopedia Topic

The name of God should be uttered before drinking; and the Lord should be praised at the end (Daim al-Islam, p. 447). Imam Jafar Sadik used to drink standing as well as sitting (Ibid., p. 449). Ali bin Abu Talib drank water while standing, and added that people did not like it but he had seen the Prophet drinking water while standing (Bukhari, 74:15).

Water should be sipped and taken slowly (massa), and not gulped down in haste (abba) (Ibid., p. 452). According to Bihar al-Anwar, Imam Jafar Sadik said, "Cold water lessens temperature, cures vomiting, digests food and is an antidote for heat. Besides, water is good for all types of pains and is not harmful in any way."

It is related by Imam al-Muizz that his father, Imam al-Mansur, was present at a feast provided by Imam al-Mahdi. One of the boys eating with others was offered drinking water, without his asking for it. He refused it and Imam al-Mahdi was greatly enraged at the servant, and said that, "Water possesses such excellence that it should never be offered without being asked for; and it should never be refused when offered to any person."

Milk should always be swallowed quickly (abba) and not drunk slowly (yatjarra'u). (Ibid., p. 455)

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral Etiquette of EatingEncyclopedia Topic

The host should offer water to wash the hands of his guests from the right to the left, washing his own last. When a man has guests with him, he should eat joyfully with them; he should be the last to begin to eat, and he should be the last to lave his hands before, and last to do so after, a meal (Kitab Majmu'at al-Hawashi, p. 59). When the host's relation are present at a meal, the host should wash his hands last, apart from the members of his own family (Daim al-Islam, p. 414)

The basmala (bismi'l-lah al-rahman al-rahim) should be recited at the commencement of a meal, and the hamdala (al-hamdu li'l-lah) at the end of it (Daim al-Islam, p. 390). One who gives thanks to God after taking a meal is compared to the man who fasts and is patient in suffering (Bukhari, 70:57).

According to Mukhtasar al-Athar by Qadi Noman, "Eating and drinking with the left hand was forbidden by the Prophet, who approved of the practice that all actions should be performed with the right hand."

It is not desirable to eat from the top or the centre of a plate (tharid); therefore, the proper code of manners is to eat from the side nearest to a man. And similarly, dates and fresh fruits and vegetables should be consumed from the sides of a dish (Daim al-Islam, p. 402). A man should not rise (qama'an) from a meal until it is over, that is until all have eaten their fill (Ibid., p. 407). There are no fixed prayers, short or long, prescribed at the end of a meal. But every man must necessarily praise the Lord, saying al-hamdu li'l-lah, and then pray, if he so wishes (Ibid., p. 408). The fingers should be washed at the end of a meal, for, this will complete the blessing of God (Ibid., p. 392).

The Prophet forbade the eating of food which was very hot (Ibid., p. 387). There is also nothing to show that taking food while sitting on a chair is forbidden, or that helping oneself with a spoon or a knife is disapproved of. On the contrary, the Prophet is spoken of as helping himself with a knife to cut cooked meat (Bukhari, 10:43).

According to Bihar al-Anwar, Imam Jafar Sadik said, "Do not eat food while it is too hot. Wash the fruit before eating it. Do not smell bread and do not rub your hands on it. Eat what is in front of you on the dinning table, and not from what is in front of others. Take small morsels and chew them well."

Eating and drinking in vessels of silver and gold was prohibited (Bukhari, 70:30), because it is a luxury, which can be enjoyed by the rich at the expense of the poor, and is against the democratic spirit of Islam.

Entertainment of guests is also emphasized (Abu Daud, 26:5). When the Prophet came to Medina, he sacrificed a camel or a cow to feast his friends (Ibid., 26:4). Inviting the followers of other religions, and accepting their invitation, is expressly spoken of in the Koran: "And the food of those who have been given the Book is lawful for you, and your food is lawful for them" (5:5). The Koran also speaks of eating together or separately as one likes: "It is no sin that you eat together or separately" (24:61). Hadith recommends social functions in which people should eat together: "Gather together at your meals, you will be blessed therein" (Ibid., 26:14).

The Prophet is also reported to have said: "Man has filled no worse vessel than the stomach. A few morsels are enough for the son of Adam. Nonetheless, if it required to eat more than it, one third he should fill one third of it with food, one third he should keep for water and one third for breathing" (Tirmizi, 2:50).

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral EtlaEncyclopedia Topic

This much, all these

Various Sources EtleEncyclopedia Topic

Meanwhile

Various Sources Eva / Eve / Evo / EviEncyclopedia Topic

Such, like this, as

Various Sources EvduEncyclopedia Topic

This much, that much

Various Sources EVIAN CONFERENCEEncyclopedia Topic

Imam Sultan Muhammad Shah had called a Conference in Evian, France known as the Evian Conference between July 4, 1952 and July 8, 1952 to discuss various economic and social problems confronting the African Ismailis and also to make necessary amendments in the Constitution of the African Councils. It was attended by 40 members including the President and the Secretary of the Supreme Council, the Presidents of the Provincial Councils and of the Ismailia Association, educational administrators, the managing director of the Jubilee Insurance Company, and three members of the East African Legislative Council.

The health of the Imam was impaired and confined to bed. Even in this state of health, he spared five complete days to hear the verbal and written reports and had a total sitting of 18 hours with the delegates. One of the major decisions reached at the Conference urged all Ismaili women of East Africa to adopt western dress for political and economic reasons. At the end of the Conference, the Imam sent following cable message:-

Aixles Bains

Very glad to hear various excellent resolutions Evian Conference carried out in spirit and letter. All those who help receive double blessings. Very glad ladies intend when new clothes ordered have western fashion economic material clothes made as Burma for all unity with new western African ideals. For economic reasons old-fashioned clothes should be worn till used up by time and age when new clothes ordered new fashion should become general

Soon after the Conference, the wives of the leaders responded thereby setting an example for the rest of the community. The Ismailia Association arranged lectures by missionaries in the Jamatkhana to encourage women to adopt western dress. This particular guidance is a good illustration of the Imam's reasoning in urging change on his people. He saw that adopting western dress would make it easier for Ismailis to be identified with and assimilated into the indigenous population. Various changes were also brought about in the school curriculum. Gujrati was gradually replaced by English as the medium of instruction. It was decided to introduce French as the second language. Emphasis was also placed on the teaching of commercial subjects for boys and domestic science for girls. Changes were made also to help Ismailis obtain higher education. The Gold Grant Committee of 1937 was taken over by the Central Committee in 1946 with a fund of $. 44,860 and an annual grant of $. 13,458 from the Imam. The grant was later raised to $. 157,000. Because of limited communal resources, it was decided after the Evian Conference that bursaries would be granted for those professions only of direct benefit to the community. Further, changes in the distribution of education at a time when education became more important for material success gave rise to new interest groups. Economic power was no longer associated only with business but also with the professions. A corollary effect of increased educational opportunity was the changing role of women, which in turn had its effect on the family. Unlike other Muslim women, the Ismaili women were no longer limited to the traditional role of housewife. But the main effect of educational opportunity on the woman's changing role was to open a broader range of career possibilities. The change in the role of women, then, was more in terms of a climate of opinion which allowed them increasing latitude and independence.

Clearly, the Imam's own willingness to accept new ideas, his skill in translating them into guidance and in channeling them through the councils, while communicating with his people at large, were important forces in creating change while perpetuating continuity. Imam Sultan Muhammad Shah lived at a time when vast changes were occurring, and he realized that the success of his followers depended on their capacity for accommodating to these changes while maintaining their cultural identity. The Imam also said, "Ismailism has survived because it has always been fluid. Rigidity is contrary to our whole life and outlook" (Memoirs of Aga Khan, p. 185).

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral FA'YEncyclopedia Topic

The Koran does not mention the word fa'y, which became the technical term in Islamic law, but refers explicitly to the verb afa'a (from the same root as fa'y); vide 33:50 and 59: 6-7. There is indications that in 59: 6-7, referring to the surrender of the Banu Nadir, afa'a denotes booty acquired not by fighting but as a result of the surrender of the enemy. Fa'y literally means that which come back. The word fa'y is applied to the lands in the conquered territories which came under the direct ownership of the Muslim state. Under the Prophet, there were certain crown or state lands, such as the estate of Fadak, etc. Fa'y is not distributed among the fighters but it belongs to God, Prophet and Ahl al-Bayt. When the Umayyad caliph Umar bin Abul Aziz returned the property of Fadak to Imam Muhammad Bakir, the Imam subjected the fa'y to the khums.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral FADAKEncyclopedia Topic

"Fadak was a fertile tract in the vicinity of Khaibar under the Jewish occupation, just three miles from Medina, now the modern village of Howeyat. After the victory of Khaibar, the Prophet wiped out the Jewish influence in this area, who were threat to Islam, therefore, he sent his envoy, Muhit to Yusha bin Nun, the chief of the village Fadak. The chief of the Jews preferred peace and surrendered to fighting. A peace treaty was concluded between the Prophet and the local Jews on the terms that 50% yield of Fadak would be surrendered to the Prophet each year by the Jews. It was a gift, and not a booty of war, and according to Islam, the areas which are conquered through wars are the property of all the Muslims, and the lands which fall into the hands of the Muslims without any military operation pertain to the personal property. When the Koranic verse: "Give the kinsman his due, and the needy, and the wayfarer...." (17:26) was revealed, the Prophet summoned his daughter and handed over Fadak to her. Suyuti writes in Dhur-e-Manthur (4:176) that, "The Prophet had bequeathed the ownership of the property of Fadak to his daughter, Fatima, and also executed a deed of gift in her favour, and her two sons."

When Abu Bakr assumed the caliphate, he forfeited Fadak from Fatima. When she was informed of the usurpation of Fadak, she appeared before him and produced a legal deed of trust, and also produced the witnesses of Ali and Umm Aiman, which were totally disapproved by Abu Bakr.

Later, when the Jews of Fadak were encircled by the forces of Umar, he assigned Fadak to al-Abbas and Ali as administrators. It was Muawiya who brought it under private ownership by giving it as iqta (fiefdom) to Marwan bin Hakam. Thus, the confiscation of Fadak was perhaps one of the burning issues between the early Shi'ites and Sunnites.

The Umayyad caliph Umar bin Abdul Aziz finally handed over the property of Fadak to Imam Muhammad al-Bakir as the sole heir of Fatima. Summing up the issue of Fadak, Imam Muhammad al-Bakir said, "Verily, Fadak was among the things which God bestowed as a fay on His Apostle without his having fought for it. Thus, when God revealed (the Koranic verse) so give to the kinsman his due, the Prophet made a gift of Fadak to Fatima. When the Prophet died, Abu Bakr took it away from her. When Uthman became ruler, he gave it away as a fief to Marwan (bin Hakam). Then, when Marwan assumed power, he gave two-thirds of it to his son Abdul Malik and one-third to his son Suleman. When Abdul Malik assumed power, he gave two-thirds to Abdul Aziz and one-third remained with Suleman. When Suleman came to rule, he gave his one-third to Umar bin Abdul Aziz. When Umar bin Abdul Aziz assumed power, he returned the whole of Fadak to the sons of Fatima" (Daim al-Islam, 1:475-6)

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral Fajal (Fazal)Encyclopedia Topic

Excellence, grace, bounty, mercy

Various Sources FalEncyclopedia Topic

Omen

Various Sources FAMILY PLANNING [ see TAHDID AL-NASL ]Encyclopedia TopicEncyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral FARISHTA [ see MALAIK ]Encyclopedia TopicEncyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral FarjandEncyclopedia Topic

Son

Various Sources FARMANEncyclopedia Topic

It is derived from framana (Turkish, ferman), meaning royal decree, command, direction, edict or written edict. For the Ismailis, it refers to any pronouncement, order, advice or ruling made by the Imam.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral FaRMANNoun

(Persan: Farmudan) (Arabe = Hukm/Amr) Commandement, Ordre. Fatimide: Sijill (sceau). Alamut: Fasl (ép

Heritage Dictionary of Ismailism, entry #37general Farman dhariyunEncyclopedia Topic

Obedient

Various Sources FARMAN, SEYYEDName

(14/15th Century). Son of Pir HK, buried in Multan.

(14/15e S.) Enfant de Pir HK, enterré à Multan.

Heritage Dictionary of ismailism, entry #213general FarshEncyclopedia Topic

Floor

Various Sources FasatunEncyclopedia Topic

Negative talk, disappointing talk

Various Sources FASTING [ see SAUM ]Encyclopedia TopicEncyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral FATIMA "AZ-ZAHRA"Name

(604-632). Daughter of Prophet Mohamed, and wife of Hazrat Ali. Also known as Om Abiha (Mother of her father) and Fatima Fatir (Creator). Her rank was that of Hujjat.

(604-632.) Fille du Prophète Moh'd et épouse de l'Imam Ali. Surnommée UMM Abiha (Mère de son père) et Fatima Fatir (Créateur). Son rang était celui de Hujjat.

Heritage Dictionary of ismailism, entry #214general FATIMA, BIBI. (GHAT-PAT)Name

Bibi Fatima was the first to establishthe ceremony of Ghat Pat* in this world; ref: to Jodilo 10. Was also the Hujjat, hence her Light founded the Ghat Pat.

Bibi Fatima fut la première à instaurer le Ghat Pat* en ce monde (Jodilo 10). Représente le Hujjat donc sa Lumière a instauré le Ghat Pat.

Heritage Dictionary of ismailism, entry #215general FATIMIDESName

Dynasty named after Bibi Fatima, reigned in Egypt from 910 to 1171. (After 1094 = Mustealiens*). Founded by Imam Mehdi. The most powerful navy in the Mediterranean.

Dynastie issue de Bibi Fatima, régna en Egypte de 910 à 1171. (à partir de 1094 = Mustéaliens*) Fondée par Imam Mehdi. La flotte la plus puissante en Méditeranné.

Heritage Dictionary of ismailism, entry #216general FATIMIDSEncyclopedia Topic

"North Africa was the land of the lost causes of Islam. The land was mainly inhabited by the Berber tribe, which was practically independent of the Abbasids. The Ismaili dai Abu Abdullah arrived in the Katama land and chose Ikjan as his base, a mountain stronghold that dominated the pilgrimage route, where he began to preach the Ismaili doctrines. While he was preaching in North Africa and consolidating the secular power, Imam al-Mahdi was closely following his activities from his retreat in Salamia. The caravan of Imam al-Mahdi left Salamia and arrived in Raqada on 20th Rabi II, 297/January 6, 910, and laid the foundation of the Fatimid Caliphate. All the notables, both Arabs and non-Arabs without exception and many other people came out to receive him. He took oath of allegiance from them. He assumed power and ordered his name mentioned in the khutba and inscribed on coins. He began to develop the barren land of Maghrib. He imposed the Islamic laws, enforcing strictly in the prohibition of forbidden food and drink, and punishing severely those who tried to practice freedom in it. The following four Ismaili Imams ruled as the Fatimid Caliphs in North Africa:-

Muhammad al-Mahdi (268-322/881-934)

Al-Qaim (322-334/934-946)

Al-Mansur (334-341/946-952)

Al-Muizz (341-365/952-975)

Imam al-Muizz sent Jawhar as-Siqilli to conquer Egypt. Jawhar's march started from Kairwan with a large army on 14th Rabi I, 357/February 4, 969. He landed at the ruins of the Tulunid dynasty (254-292/868-905) on 15th Shaban, 358/July 4, 969 where he was received with honour. In short, he captured Egypt, and dispatched a messenger towards Maghrib in presence of Imam al-Muizz with the glad tidings that Egypt had fallen to the Fatimids.

Jawhar then invited Imam al-Muizz in Egypt. After making necessary appointments in Maghrib, Imam al-Muizz departed from Mansuria on 21st Shawal, 361/August 15, 972 with his family and notable persons. His caravan reached Alexandria on 23rd Shaban, 362/May 29, 973. Abu Tahir Muhammad bin Ahmad, the qadi of Egypt, accompanied by the chief men, and offered Imam al-Muizz their salutations. Towards the end of the month of Shaban, Imam al-Muizz left Alexandria and, on Saturday, the 2nd Ramzan, 363/June 6, 973, he stopped at Mina, the wharf of Egypt. Jawhar in Jazira warmly greeted him. Imam al-Muizz entered Cairo, henceforward; it became the capital of the Fatimids. Ibn Khallikan (3:380) writes that, "On arriving at Cairo, he went to the castle and entered a hall of audience where he fell prostrate in adoration of Almighty God. He then said a prayer of two rakats (i.e., the genuflections of prayer)." Henceforward, the following Nizari Ismaili Imams ruled as the Fatimid Caliphs in Egypt:-

Al-Aziz (365-386/975-996)

Al-Hakim (386-411/996-1021)

Az-Zahir (411-427/1021-1036)

Al-Mustansir (427-487/1036-1095)

Al-Nizar (487-490/1095-1097)

After the death of Imam al-Mustansir billah in 487/1097, the Fatimid Caliphate came into the hand of Musta'li, who was not designated as the successor, but ruled with the influence of vizir al-Afdal. Henceforwath, the following rulers ruled the Fatimid Caliphate:-

Musta'li (487-495/1095-1101)

Amir (495-524/1101-1130)

Hafiz (524-544/1130-1149)

Zafir (544-549/1149-1154)

Faiz (549-555/1154-1160)

Adid (555-567/1160-1171)

Finally, the Ayyubid ruler, Saladin (d. 589/1193) conquered Egypt and got an end of the Fatimid Caliphate in 567/1171 when the Nizari Ismaili Imam Ala Muhammad (561-607/1166-1210) was ruling at Alamut in Iran.

At its apogee, the Fatimid rule extended from the shores of the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea encompassing Morocco, N.W. Africa, Egypt, Syria, parts of the Hijaz

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral FATWAEncyclopedia Topic

The word fatwa is derived from the root fata, which includes in its Semanic fields the meaning youth, newness, clarification, or explanation. These connotations have survived in its various definitions. Its development as a technical term originated from the Koran, where the word is used in two verbal forms meaning asking for a definitive answer and giving a definitive answer (4:127, 176). The concept of fatwa in early Islam developed in the framework of a question and answer process of communicating information about Islam. The technical usage of the term was further refined after the compilation of legal literature by different schools, and it thus came to mean a legal opinion or legal ruling.

In Ismailism, the Imam is a sole authority. His guidance and order are the legal ruling, therefore, no person is authorized to issue fatwa on any religion matter. One can however make his judgment in view of the guidances of the Imam, but his judgment cannot be regarded conclusively.

Devin J. Steward writes in Islamic Legal Orthodoxy (Salt Lake, 1998, p. 179) that, "It is the Caliph (Imam) who has ultimate authority on religious matters. Others, like al-Qadi al-Numan himself, are entitled to issue legal opinions and hand down verdicts, but only through the permission of the Caliph (Imam); their authority is derivative and dependent."

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral FEMALE Ismaili NamesEncyclopedia Topic

ABIDA Adoress

AFROZA Enlightening

AFSAN Fascinating

AFSHEEN Spreading Widely

AINI Generous

ALMAS Diamond

AMINA Trustworthy

ANAR Pomegranate

AMBAR Ambergris

AMBREEN Ambergris

ANISA Affectionate

ARZOO Desire

ASMA Beautiful

ATIYA Gift

AZIZA Respected

BAJILA Venerable

BANO Lady

BEENA Wise

BEENISH Vision

BEGUM Lady

BILQUIS Queen of Sheba

BUSHRA Glad tidings

CHAMBELI Jasmine

CHAND Moon

CHANDANI Moonlight

DILSHAD Happy

DINAR Coin

DUA Supplication

FAHMIDA Wise

FAIROZA Turquoise

FARAH Joy

FARHANA Happy

FARIDA Unique

FARZANA Wise

FATIMA Weaning

FAUZIA Victorious

GAUHAR Gem

GHAZAL Ode

GHAZALA Gazelle

GULAB Rose

GULNAR Pomegranate Flower

GULSHAN Garden

GULZAR Blooming

HABIBA Beloved

HAFISA Guardian

HAFSA Lioness

HALIMA Humane

HAMIDA Commendable

HASINA Pretty

HEENA Comfort

HINNA Myrtle

HUMA Lucky Bird

HUMAIRA Reddish

HUSNA Beautiful

IMAN Faith

IRAM Heaven

ISHRAT Pleasure

ISMAT Honour

JAMILA Elegant

JAUHARA Gem

KANWAL Water Lily

KARIMA Generous

KHANAM Lady

KHATIJA Daughter

KHATOON Lady

KIRAN Ray

KISHWAR Realm

KOYAL Cuckoo

KULSOOM Fleshy Cheek

LAILA Sweetheart

LUBAB Gist

LUBNA Strox Tree

MAHMOODA Praised

MAIMOONA Safe

MALIKA Queen

MASOOMA Innocent

MEENA Heaven

MUBEENA Clear

MUNIRA Brilliant

NABAT Growing

NABEELA Nobility

NADIA Caller

NADIRA Rare

NAFISA Precious

NAGHMA Song

NAHEED Elevated

NAJMA Precious

NARGIS Narcisus Flower

NASREEN Jonquil

NAUSHEEN Sweet

NAZISH Glory

NAZNEEN Tender

NEELOFAR Lotus

NIGHAT Sight

NISHAT Lively

NOORI Bright

NUBLA Gift

NUSRAT Victory

PAKIZA Pure

PARI Fairy

PARVEEN Stars

QAMAR Moon

QASIMA Handsome

QURA-TUL-AIN Delight of Eyes

RABIA Fourth

RAFIQA Sweetheart

RASHIDA Pious

RAUQAYYA Superior

RAUSHAN Bright

RAZIA Satisfied

RESHMA Silken

ROZINA Daily Wage

RUBEE Ruby

RUHI Spiritual

SABA Morning Breeze

SABBAH Dawn

SABIRA Enduring

SADAF Oyster

SAFIA Pure

SAIMA One who fasts

SAKINA Devout

SALIMA Safe

SALMA Peaceful

SAMINA Plump

SAMIRA Jovial

SANA Radiance

SANAM Beloved

SANOBAR Pine Tree

SEEMA Sign

SHABANA Nocgturnal

SHABANAM Dew

SHAFIQA Kind

SHAGOOFA Bud

SHAHBANU Noblewoman

SHAHIDA Witness

SHAHNAZ Pride of King

SHAILA Shinning

SHAKILA Pretty

SHAMA Candle

SHAISTA Polite

SHAKILA Beautiful

SHAMIM Perfume

SHAMSAH Gold

SHIREEN Sweet

SOHNI Lovely

SORIYYA Star

SUGHRA Small

TABASUM Smile

TAHIRA Pure

TAJ Crown

TASLEEM Acceptance

TASNEEM Fountain of

Paradise

UFAQ Horizon

USWA Paragon

UZMA Greatest

WASIMA Graceful

YASIRA Simple

YASMIN Jasmine

YUMNA Prosperity

ZAHIDA Ascetic

ZAHRA Brilliant

ZAKIA Intellectual

ZARINA Golden

ZEB Beauty

ZINAT Decoration

ZUBEDA Essence

ZUHRA Venus

ZULEKHA Beautiful

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral FIDAI Encyclopedia Topic

"The Persian word fidai (or fidawi, pl. fidaiyan) means one who offers his life for a cause or sacrifices. Its synonymous Arabic word is fidaiyyun. It is a term for special Ismaili devotees of Iran and Syria, coined for the first time in Alamut period, who risked their lives. The term fidai is the symbol of loyalty and sacrifice - a highest form of virtue.

The enemies of the Ismailis had done their best to besmirch the name of the fidai, whose matchless devotion to their faith will ever remain a bright page in the history. The coloured accounts foisted on the loyal adherents of the Imams are but the outcome of the prejudice and hatred of the fanatical writers towards the enlightened but unfortunately misunderstood Ismailis. The fidais were not the cruel murderers of innocent victims, but they were inveterate enemies of ignorance and darkness which enveloped the Islamic faith during these dark periods. The Ismaili fidais made their names in history and their memories are ever green into this day on account of their loyalty to their faith.

The history of the Ismailis of Alamut is grossly misunderstood in a hideous form. Most unfortunately, it is exactly about this period that we possess almost no genuine Ismaili sources. Most of the extant sources have come down to us from the aggressive camps, based their informations from the illusive bits and shreds. They seem to take information on its face-value without trying to verify the truth thereof. But history, as distinct from fiction, proves otherwise. Juvaini, the earliest source, for instance, is the bitterly anti-Ismaili, who is responsible to distort the genuine Ismaili traditions, and the scholars follow the stories woven by Juvaini without realizing his inimical attitude. W. Ivanow (1886-1970) writes in Alamut and Lamasar (Tehran, 1960, p. 26) that, "There are scholars who are perfectly satisfied with what he (Juvaini) says, showing their utter ignorance."

One of the allegations is the character of the Ismaili fidais (the devotees), the self-sacrificing warriors; who had been spoken of spreading terrorism by daggers, and are termed Assassins by the Western authorities of Crusades period. When the Crusades spoke of the Assassins, they originally referred to the Syrian Ismailis. Later, the term was also affixed with the Iranian Ismailis. According to W. Ivanow, "This subject has been as much hackneyed and surrounded by legends or fairy tales, as almost everything in connection with Ismailism." (Ibid. p. 21)

Hasan bin Sabbah hated war and avoided commotion that would rob of him of peace and disturb his life of seclusion. He objected unnecessary shedding of blood, but his sworn enemies hurled in the fire of war, so that they might thereby obtain and retain their power and kingdom. Thus, he resorted to removing the root causes and killing the germs of mischief that infected the selfish rulers. He killed few of them and saved the Muslims from fighting, which was need of the time. The Ismaili fidais did not kill anyone out of hatred or rancour but out of desire to save a number of Muslims who would otherwise have been skinned alive. Bosworth writes in The Islamic Dynasties (cf. Islamic Survey, series no. 5, Edinburgh, 1967, p. 128) that, "The Ismailis played a significant role in three-cornered struggle with the Franks and the Sunni Muslims. Since the Ismailis were comparatively few in number, assassination of prominent people often served as a substitute for direct military action."

The enemies of the Ismailis did not like an independent Nizari Ismaili state and reacted violently to it. They launched attacks one after another with vast overwhelming forces, accompanied by destruction of crops, cutting of fruit trees and other wrecking tools to damage the economy of the Ismailis. The Ismailis were comparatively less to meet the danger hovering upon them, therefore, an armed unit of the fidai warriors seems to have been trained, who adopted an upheaval method of guerilla warfare for defensive purpose. Some scholars regard the Ismaili struggle a revolt, but it was a struggle for survival. It was a technique of the limited warriors to force the gigantic and colossal military machine to turn back by spreading awful milieu in their camps. In pre-Islamic Arabia the usual method of combat was the famous karr wa farr means hit and run, a technique admirably suited to tribal warfare. W. Ivanow writes, "In proper perspective, fidaism was a local form of guerilla warfare, ... it would be decidedly idiotic and dishonest to see in it something like the most prominent organic feature of the Nizari Ismaili doctrine, as is done by some ignorant but pretentious scholars." (Ibid. p. 21) W. Montgomery Watt in his Islam and the Integration of Society (London, 1961, p. 69) and Edward Mortimer in Faith and Power (London, 1982, p. 48) also admit that the method of the fidais was no other than that of the guerilla warfare. Bernard Lewis writes in The Assassins (London, 1967, p. 130) that, "Hasan found a new way, by which a small force, disciplined and devoted, could strike effectively against the overwhelmingly superior army." Guerilla warfare is an irregular unit of fighters, not so popular in those days, therefore, the misnomer, Assassins to the Ismailis in the Western sources was freely coined.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral FINALITY OF PROPHECY [ see KHATAM AL-NABIYYIN ]Encyclopedia TopicEncyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral Financial InstitutionsEncyclopedia Topic

AKFED provides an institutional umbrella for a number of leading finance and insurance companies in Africa and Asia. Imam Sultan Muhammad Shah founded most of these as small self-help companies in the first half of this century. During this period, colonial financial institutions had neither the interest nor the ability to provide banking services and insurance to the small traders and farmers of the community. At the outset, most of the self-help companies were financed by contributions from the Ismaili community to mark the successive jubilees i.e. Golden, Diamond and Platinum of Imam Sultan Muhammad Shah. The Present Imam opened their services to non-Ismailis, professional zed their operations and moved them into the mainstream of national commercial life. Many of them have become major financial institutions. In India, two cooperative societies founded in the 1930s grew into one of the country's largest cooperative banks, the Development Cooperative Bank. It has now become a major private sector commercial bank, the Development Credit Bank, with AKFED and IFC among its institutional shareholders. In both South Asia and East Africa, the shares of a number of the larger AKFED companies are listed on national stock exchanges. They include commercial banks, finance houses and insurance companies. The Aga Khan Development Network's mandate in the developing world includes a particular emphasis on the well being of rural populations. In 1987, AKFED, IFC and other shareholders joined the Government of Gujrat to establish Gujrat Rural Housing Finance Corporation, which is providing finance for new housing as well as for the upgrading and extension of existing houses in Gujrat.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral FIQHEncyclopedia Topic

The word fiqh is used in the literal sense to mean understanding and in this sense; the words fiqh and fahm are synonymous. The word fiqh was originally used by the Arabs for a camel expert, who could distinguish the pregnant she-camels with others, and thus the expression fahal faqihi was current among them. It indicates deep knowledge and understanding. In addition, the Arabic idiom goes Fala’n la yafaqahu wala yanqahu (So-and-so neither understands nor comprehends). In pre-Islamic days, the term Faqih al-Arab was an appellation given to Harith bin Kaladah. The word fiqh is used on several occasions in the Koran in the meaning of understanding: “What has come to these people that they fail to understand single fact” (4:78) and “They have hearts wherewith they understand not” (7:179). It implies that in the Prophet’s time, the term fiqh was not applied in the legal sense alone but carried a wider meaning. It may be noted that in the early days of Islam, the term fiqh and ilm were frequently used for an understanding of Islam in general. In Tabaqat (2:363) of Ibn Sa’d, the Prophet is reported to have blessed Ibn Abbas (d. 68/687), saying: “O God, give him understanding in religion” (Allahuma faq’hahu fi’din). The year 94/713 is known as sanat al-fuqaha (the year of the jurists), because a number of the celebrated jurists of Medina, notably Sa’id bin al-Musayyib, Abu Bakr bin Abd al-Rahman etc. died in that year (Ibid. 5:143). It seems reasonable to assume that the term fiqh and ilm were separated when jurists and specialists in hadith came into existence towards the end of the first century. It may be gathered from above analysis that the scope of the term fiqh was gradually narrowed down, and ultimately came to be applied to the legal problems. The word fiqh is defined by Raghib in these words: “Fiqh means arriving at the knowledge of the unknown by means of knowledge of the known.” In its technical sense, the word fiqh was restricted to Islamic jurisprudence.

The original source from which not only the basic tenets but also all principles and ordinances of Islam are derived is the divinely revealed Book – Koran, whose all-positive laws have been superiority over man-made laws. The Koran is the primary source of Islamic law. While noting the overriding importance of the Koran as a source of law, it is interesting also to note in the words of N.J. Coulson in Islamic Survey (Edinburgh, 1964, p. 12), “no more than approximately eighty verses deal with legal topics in the strict sense of the term.” When the Islamic commonwealth was founded in Medina in 622 A.D., the Prophet was not only the spiritual leader, but also the supreme judge and authority of the Islamic community. A number of cases would be referred by his followers for his adjudication. Certain of the cases, it is asserted, had been resolved by the adhoc revelation of a Divine ruling on the matter. But if the Koran was silent, or it needed interpretation to solve the problem, it was decided by the Prophet acting either upon the basis of his inspired judgment or even on his own initiative. The Koran says: “If you quarrel about anything among yourselves, refer it to God and His Messenger” (4:59) and “So judge between them by what God has revealed” (5:48).

It might well be that the problems did not arise in the Prophet’s immediate circle, and so the decision had fallen to the responsibility of Prophet’s appointed local agents acting on the basis of what they knew of the Prophet’s policies, with the intent to consult the Prophet when next they returned to Medina. The Prophet had then endorsed, or not, his agents actions. Being the secondary source of Islamic law, the hadith is however judged and valued by the Koran. If it agrees with the Koran, it should be accepted, and if it runs counter to the spirit of the Koranic injunction, it should be rejected.

When the boundaries of Islam expanded and other nations flocked to its fold, disputes also arose due to varying perceptions of law. Conflicting opinions abounded. People with different cultural backgrounds and customs understood the laws differently. The crucial questions that came before Islamic jurisprudence. Should they be left to the conscience of the individuals or should it be legally defined?

In sum, the Koran and the judgments of the Prophet represented the basic sources of law. Who was vested the authority to bring the requisite solutions of the Muslims after the death of the Prophet? Shaikh al-Mufid (d. 413/1022) writes in Awa’il al-maqalat (Tabriz, 1951, p. 35) that, “The Imams take the place of the Prophet in enforcing judgments, seeing to the execution of the legal penalties, safeguarding the law an educating mankind.”

The first school of fiqh in Islam was the Jafari school of Imam Jafar Sadik (d. 148/765), which was contemporaneous with the Sunni Hanafi school of Abu Hanifah (d. 150/767) and Sunni Maliki school of Malik bin Anas (d. 179/795). These three schools were followed by the Shafi’i and Hanbali schools of fiqh. All the founders of the four Sunni schools were directly and indirectly influenced by the Jafari school. Ibn Sa’d writes in Tabaqat (1:47) that, “Indeed, during the Umayyads period, no attention was paid in religious affairs. The people had little knowledge of jurisprudence and religious affairs. No one knew these religious affairs except the people of Medina.” According to Tahmid li’Tarikh al-Falsafa al-Islamia (p. 202), “It is natural that the Shi’ites were the first to record jurisprudence, for their belief in the infallibility of their Imams urged them to write down their judgments and religious opinions.”

The first integral text of Sunni Usul al-fiqh (methodology of jurisprudence) was codified by al-Shafi’i (d. 204/820). There was a considerable temporal gap between al-Shafi’i’s text and the next extant Sunni work on Usul al-fiqh, and it was al-Fusul fi al-usul by Abu Bakr Ahmad bin Ali al-Jassas al-Razi (d. 370/980). The first extant work on Usul al-fiqh in the Twelver Shi’ite tradition was al-Tazkirah bi-usul al-fiqh by Shaikh al-Mufid (d. 413/1022).

In sum, there were 34 Sunni jurists who compiled their works on jurisprudence between al-Shafi’i (d. 204/820) and Qadi Abdul Jabbar (d. 415/1024). On the other hand, there were 30 Shi’ite jurists who wrote texts on jurisprudence between Shaikh al-Mufid (d. 413/1022) and Mirza Abul Kassim al-Qummi (d. 1231/1816).

In the Sunni tradition, ijtihad stands as the third source after Koran and hadith, from which the laws of Islam are drawn. The word ijtihad is derived from jahd meaning exerting oneself to the utmost or to the best of one’s ability. Thus, ijtihad literally conveys the same significance and is technically applicable to a lawyer’s exerting the faculties of mind to the utmost for the purpose of forming an opinion in a case of law respecting a doubtful and difficult point. The four Sunni Imams, Abu Hanifah (d. 150/767), Malik bin Anas (d. 179/795), Shafi’i (d. 204/820) and Ahmad bin Hanbal (d. 241/856) had agreed in giving ijtihad an important place in legislation.

The use of the term ijtihad to mean the ability to arrive at a legal ruling on the basis of individual investigation was at first rejected by Shi’ite juristsconsults but later incorporated into the Twelver Shi’ite legal system.

The sphere of ijtihad has been made wide to fulfill all the requirements of the Muslim community, which are not met with expressly in the Koran and the hadith. The jurists have endeavoured to meet these demands by various methods, technically known as Qiyas, Istihsan, Istislah and Istidlal.

Qiyas means measuring by or comparing with or judging by comparing with a thing. The word qiyas is derived from the Jewish term hiqqish, from an Aramaic root, meaning to beat together. In Arabic usage the word means the reasoning based on analogy. This system associated primarily with the Sunni Hanafi very strongly. Abu Hanifah came first for criticism by Malik bin Anas and Shafi’i for introducing this principle. The legitimacy of this method was strongly contested by Imam Muhammad al-Bakir and Imam Jafar Sadik with Abu Hanifah and criticized him for applying analogy in religious matter. The Sunni Shafi’i did not accept analogy. Later, they recognized it begrudgingly and felt that it left too much room for human authority to shape the interpretation of Islamic law. Thus, the Shafi’i scholars adopted it, notably al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (d. 463/1071). The Twelver Shi’ites choice of affiliation with the Shafi’is school was already established in the 10th century. Ibn al-Junayd al-Iskafi was prolific Shi’ite jurist in Baghdad, who compiled a twenty-volume work on Shi’ite law entitled Tahzib al-Shi’ah li’Ahkam al-Shariah, and accepted the doctrine of qiyas. Abu Jafar al-Tusi (d. 460/1067), Sharif al-Murtada (d. 436/1044) and al-Mufid (d. 413/1022) approved of Ibn Junayd’s opinion for qiyas. Thus, the influence of Sunni law was well established in Shi’ite society. Allama al-Hilli (d. 726/1325) also accepted in his writings an even greater portion of Sunni legal methodology. The Sunni track was then followed by al-Shahid al-Awwal (d. 786/1384), Ali bin Abdul Ali al-Karaki (d. 940/1534) and al-Shahid al-Thani (d. 965/1558).

Earlier, the Twelver Shi’ite jurists did not accept qiyas (analogy) as one of the sources of jurisprudence, but they eventually developed their usual al-fiqh (methodology of jurisprudence), so that there would be four sources, substituting dalil al-aql (evidence of reason) for qiyas. Thus, the Shi’ite sources of law became the Koran, Hadith, Ijma and Dalil al-aql, corresponding to the usual Sunni order.

Istihsan means considering a thing to be good or preferring it. When a deduction based on analogy is not acceptable, the jurists are at liberty to reject the same, and to adopt instead a rule, which is conductive to public good. This method is peculiar in Sunni Hanafi, but owing to strong opposition from other schools of thought, it has not been developed to its full extent. Istislah is another alternative in place of istihsan. The Sunni Maliki adopted a similar rule under the name of Istislah means a deduction of law based on consideration of public good.

Istidlal means the inferring of one thing from another. It is recognized that customs prevailed in Arabia at the advent of Islam, and were not abrogated by Islam, have the force of law. The Sunni Hanafi lays special stress on it.

Ijma is a word derived from jam means collecting or gathering together, and ijma carries the double significance of composing and settling a thing, which has been unsettled and hence “determining and resolving upon an affair.” In the terminology of the jurists, ijma means a consensus of opinion of the jurists. The acceptance of ijma (consensus) dates back to Shafi’i (d. 204/820). The Hanbalis gave it the narrowest of interpretations and would abide by the ijma only of the Companions of the Prophet, while the Hanafis, for example, accepted the opinions of the jurists of any age. The Malikis would abide by the ijma of the scholars of Medina, which was sanctified by association with the Prophet. The Shi’ites however rejected the doctrine of ijma. Though the principle of ijma remained effective among the Sunnis, but it never assume the form of a permanent legislative institution, probably because it went against the political interests of the Umayyads and the Abbasids.

In the absence of their Imam, the Twelver Shi’ites ultimately adopted the Sunni principle of legal consensus (ijma). It was nearly impossible for the Shi’ites to avoid mixing with the Sunnis in the academic realm because Sunnis controlled the government and the schools. The professors were also Sunnis and the common texts were Sunni works. The Sunni dominance in society affected Shi’ite religious and intellectual history to great extent. Both Kashani (d. 1091/1680) and Karaki (d. 940/1534) however claim that the Shi’ite jurists’ adoption of Sunni methods was unintentional due to lack of awareness or because they became confused or confounded. Thus, the image of Jafari fiqah was almost changed, which had been however began already in 10th century.

The reason for incorporation of the Sunni law into the Shi’ite society is also given by Qadi Noman (d. 363/974) in Ikhitilaf usual al-madhahib (ed. S.T. Lokhandwalla, Simla, 1972, pp. 5-6). He writes, “When the Shi’a were incapable of understanding the Koran or the Sunnah, they disagreed, and derived rulings for the Muslim community according to their own fancy. They did this to such degree that they were reluctant to refer the matters which they disputed to those to whom God had commanded them to consult, out of covetousness for their dominant position and so that those over whom they claimed to have authority might not view them as incapable and subsequently cease to follow them.” Here Qadi Noman asserts that the Sunni jurists have made unfounded claims to exclusive religious authority and this usurped the authority of the Imams. Difference of opinion on legal matters result from refusal to consult the Imams, whose authority is uniquely valid.

The Shi’ite jurists al-Astarabadi (d. 1036/1626) writes: “The consensus of the Muslim community is not incontestable; rather it is known to be invalid” (ijma’u ‘l-ummati ghayru musallamin bal ma’lumu ‘l-butlan). He also insisted that it was groundless and the Sunni invention: “The authority of consensus is one of the contrivances and inventions of the Sunnis” (inna hujjiyata ‘l-ijm’i min tadabiri ‘l-ammati wa’khtira’atihim), vide al-Fawa’id al-madaniyah (Tehran, 1904, pp. 13 and 112). Similarly, al-Hurr al-Amili writes in al-Fawa’id al-tusiyah (Qumm, 1983, pp. 403-5) that, “The truth is that consensus actually comes from the Sunnis, and not from the Shi’ites, so how could there be any authority in it? The early Shi’ite scholars have opposed to it.” He also goes on to argue that the concept of equally valid competing opinions must be unsound, since the Sunnis use this as an excuse for the wars, which took place among the Companions during Ali’s caliphate.

During the Safavid empire in Iran, the latent differences in the Twelver Shi’ites came readily to the fore in the flourishing liberty of the Shi’ite Mujtahids. Two major schools of theological thought emerged in the Shi’ite society. The majority stressed constant references to the first principles, to all the sources (usul) of law : these were the Koran, Hadith, and the reports of the Imams, consensus and intellect. They became known as the Usuli, and whose prominent scholars were Abdul Jalil Qazwini, Muntajab al-Din al-Razi (d. 600/1203).

But a vigorously protesting movement arose against the Usuli, and threw doubt on the validity of consensus as an independent basis of law and stressed the massive use of the reports (akhbar) of the Prophet and the Imams, and they became known as the Akhbari. Prominent scholars of the Akhbari heyday include Muhammad Amin al-Astrabadi (d. 1036/1626), Hussain bin Shihabuddin al-Karaki (d. 1076/1665), Muhsin al-Fayd al-Kashani (d. 1091/1680), Muhammad bin al-Hasan al-Hurr al-Amili (d. 1099/1688) and Nimatullah al-Jazairi (d. 1112/1701). The Akhbari writings not only waged propaganda that the Shi’ite scholars conceived of the Twelvers as a professional organization based on the exclusive authority of jurists in the 17th century and from the Sunnis. Although the Akhbari movement maintained a continual though limited presence from the 10th until the 16th century, there was a resurgence of the movement in the 17th century and it remained very strong for the next one hundred and fifty years or so. Akhbari and Usuli are therefore two groups within Shi’ism parallel to, for example, the Shafi’i and Maliki in the Sunnis. The Akhbarism has since died out in Iran and Iraq, but their scholarly tradition has continued on a much smaller scale in Bahrain, eastern Saudi Arabia, and parts of India until the present.

After the death of Imam Jafar Sadik, the period of concealment started in the Ismaili history. The followers for the most part lost their direct contact with the Imams, therefore, they continued to apply the Jafari fiqh in religious affairs. When the period of concealment ended, and the Fatimid Caliphate came into existence in 297/910, the Jafari fiqh seems to have lost its original form and spirit. Thus, a refined fiqh had been codified in the period of Imam al-Muizz (d. 365/975) in Cairo. It is related that once a large number of da’is were at the court of Imam al-Muizz. The chief topic of conversation was the variations in religious practices and laws, and how erroneous opinion had crept into the Pure Path, the true Shari’ah. This was strongly deprecated and the Imam laid down the principle that the people should always follow in the footsteps of the previous generations. Then he cited the famous hadith of the Prophet: “When innovations appear in my community, let the learned man make manifest his learning or else the curse of God be upon him.” The turning to Qadi Noman (d. 363/974), he said, “You are the person, O’Noman, who is indicated in this hadith.” The Imam thereupon commissioned Qadi Noman to compose Daim al-Islam and explained to him the roots (usul) and branches (furu) of the law. The Imam related to him authentic traditions from his forefathers, i.e., the Imams of the House of the Prophet and the traditions of the Prophet himself, and distinguished those concerning which the reporters had differed. Qadi Noman thus composed Daim al-Islam as designed by Imam al-Muizz and he used to get it revised by the Imam chapter by chapter, and the Imam rejected what was wrong and retained what was right. It is to be added that we have a letter of Imam al-Hakim, dated 20 Dhu’l-qada, 391/12 October, 1001, addressed to Harun bin Muhammad, the da’i of Yamen, which makes the Daim al-Islam the paramount authority. Idris Imad al-din (d. 872/1468) cited the actual words of Imam al-Hakim in his Idah al-l’lam wa Ibanat al-Hidayat, which reads: “Your answers to those who question you concerning legal questions about what is forbidden and what is allowed should be from the Daim al-Islam in preference to all the other books which have been handed down. For matters on which the Daim al-Islam is silent, it is permissible to consult other authorities.” These authorities are the books of Qadi Noman, firstly, the Mukhtasar al-Athar and Yanbu; both of them being of equal weight. Secondly, the Ikhbar, Iqtisar and al-Qasidat al-Muntakhaba, and other legal works of Qadi Noman; and the later works are Taqwim al-Ahkam, and Kitab al-Najah.

Qadi Noman writes in Ikhtilaf usual al-madhahib that the Fatimid Imam is the ultimate source of legal authority. He rejects all other sources of authority and rejects as well the Sunni methodology of jurisprudence, including taqlid, ijma, nazar, qiyas, istihsan and ijtihad. In a letter of appointment issued to Qadi Noman on 28 Rabi I, 343/30 September, 954, Imam al-Muizz explains the Ismaili system of legal authority quite simply and clearly. He instructed the new judge that when confronted with a problem, he should first consult the Koran, then the hadith, then the opinions of the earlier Imams. If the problem remains unsolved at this point, he should refer directly to Imam al-Muizz himself and the Imam will provide him with the correct answer. (vide Ikhtilaf usual al-madhahib, p. 21). Finally, Noman says that there are only three foundations of the law: Koran, Sunnah and the word of the Imam (al’amalu bi-zahiran kitab wa sunnah wa qawl al-i’imah)

Yaqub bin Killis (d. 380/991), the first Fatimid vizir in the period of Imam al-Aziz (d. 386/996) is reported to have composed a book on fiqh, entitled Musannaf al-Wazir. In this he closely followed Qadi Noman, and imitated his method and style.

The Ismailis have their Imam in every age means a living book, they need nothing to knock another door for solving their problems, and their source of authority in Islamic jurisprudence is the Koran, hadith, the rulings of the earlier Imams and finally the Present Imam. The Ismailis hold that the Imam of the age is the supreme authority to exercise ijtihad (consensus), which includes qiyas (analogy), istihsan (equity), istislah (public good) and istidlal (inference). Devin J. Stewart writes in Islamic Legal Orthodoxy (Salt Lake, 1998, p. 177) that, “The Nizari branch of Ismailis, the followers of the Agha Khan, vest all legal authority in their Imam, who is termed “Mawlana Hazar Imam” (al-Imam al-Hadir), meaning the Imam who is Present and not in occultation.”

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral FIRaSTA (FIRaSTO)Noun

(Persan:) Ange.

Heritage Dictionary of Ismailism, entry #549general FIRQAEncyclopedia Topic

Among the indicative of divisions or distinctions, the words used in the Koran are hizb (pl. ahzab), ta'ifa, shi'a and the derivatives of f-q-r. All can be understood with the general meaning of party, group or faction. The word hizb in its singular, plural and dual forms appears 19 times and the word shi'a and shi'ya occurs 11 times in the Koran. The word ta'ifa and its dual forms appears 23 times, used more or less randomly to refer to groups or parties among the Ahl al-Kitab. Tusi (d. 460/1067) calls the Shi'ites "the group which is right" (al-ta'ifa al-muhaqqiqa).

In Koran (3:23), the word fariq is used in the meaning of a faction. The one occurrence of firqa refers to a unit among the believers: "The believers should not go out together to fight, of every firqa of them a ta'ifa should remain behind to acquire religious knowledge" (9:122), "After the hearts of a fariq among them had almost turned away" (9:117). The word firaq (sing. firqa) is a noun from the Arabic verbal stem furaqa means split, divide or differentiate. In his book al-Farq bain al-firaq, al-Baghdadi used the word firqa means sect. So does al-Shahristani in his al-milal wa al-nihal when he used the word milla to mean nation, he used the word nihla to mean religious order.

According to the famous tradition, "The Jews are divided into 71 sects, the Christians into 72 sects, and my people will be divided into 73 sects." This tradition is recorded with some variations in wording in many sources, namely Masnad (2:332, 3:120 & 4:102) by Ahmad bin Hanbal, Sahih (5:25-26) by Tirmizi, Sunan (2:503) by Abu Daud, Sunan (2:1321-2) by Ibn Majah, Sunan (2:241) by Darimi, Mustadrak (4:430) by Hakim, Mishkat (1:61) by Khatib Tabrizi, Majma'az Zawa'id (7:157, 159) by al-Hathami, al-Kafi (8:224) by Kulaini, etc. Once Imam Jafar Sadik was asked, "Why Muslims are disunited?" The Imam asked, "Were they disunited in the period of the Prophet?" The man said, "No." The Imam said, "Because they were obeying a single order of the Prophet and not going here and there in the matter of religion, and therefore, the unity of religion is possible only under the divine guidance of the Prophet and the Imam of the time after him."

A few of the recognized authorities on the sects of Islam are:- Al-Maqalat wal firaq by al-Qummi (d. 301/914), Kitab Firaq al-Shi'a by Nawbakhti (d. 310/922), Maqalat al-Islamiyyin by al-Ashari (d. 324/935), Kitab al-tanbih wal-radd by al-Malati (d. 377/987), Al-Farq bain al-Firaq by al-Baghdadi (d. 429/1037), Kitab al-milal wal nihal by Ibn Hazm (d. 456/1064), Kitab al-milal wal nihal by Shahristani (d. 548/1153), Dabistan al-Madhahib by Mohsin Fani (d. 1081/1670), etc. The following sects emerged in the mainstream of ummah:-

Sunni : Hanafi, Shafi, Maliki and Hanbali

Shi'ite : Ithna Asharis, Ismailis, Bohra, Alwi, Abadia, Abbasia, Kaisaniya, Zaidia, Matnasakhia, Mut'razia, Tania, Razia and Ishaqia.

Kharji : A'zarkia, Abardia, Salabia, Kharzamia, Khalafia, Karzia, Mut'zilla, Maimunia, Mahokamia, Shamrakhia, Naoshia and La'amina.

Jabaria : Muztaria, Magfiria, Jebia, Sabakia, Kaslia, Khofia, Fakaria, Hasabia, Mairamia, A'haiyya, Mo'haiyyia and Afalia.

Qadaria : Ahmadia, Sanavia, Kisania, Setania, Sharkia, Abadia, Nakasia, Tabaria, Kastia, Lazamia, Manzamiya and Wahemia.

Murjia : Tehmia, Almia, Rajia, Tarkia, Mashaikhia, Sakia, Manshia, Murtrawia, Ashrabia and

Baduwia.

Jahamia : Moaltia, Marabandia, Mutrafia, Varidia, Hurufia, Makhlukia, Gairia, Fatiyya, Zanvakia, Lafzia and Waqifia.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral FIRUZName

Fatimid Dai who left his master on a voyage to Maghreb in 902 after learning of the change of plans by the Imam. He was executed in Yemen.

Dai fatimide faussa compagnie à son maître en 902 en apprenant le changement d'itinéraire de l'Imam vers le Maghreb. Exécuté au Yémen.

Heritage Dictionary of ismailism, entry #217general FIVE SENSES Encyclopedia Topic

The five elements (al-hawassul khamsa) alone form the constituents of all the mundane creation. The first is unsur-i azam (the great element), referring to the great throne (arsh-i akbar). Secondly, the wind; thirdly, the fire; fourthly, the water and fifthly, the dust. In the Indian language, these are called panch-bhut, namely akas, vayu, tej, jal and prthivi.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral FOCUS HUMANITARIAN ASSISTANCE Encyclopedia Topic

FOCUS Humanitarian Assistance is an international group of agencies established to compliment and facilitate the provision of emergency humanitarian assistance in specific regions of Africa and Asia. This global institution with an international mandate, seeks to enable the local jamats to prepare for hazards, respond to crisis situations, and where possible, to avert disaster or minimize its impact. FOCUS meets its challenging and growing mandate through the dedication, energy and intellect of hundreds of volunteers and professionals who form the backbone of FOCUS.

FOCUS is an affiliate of the Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN). The units of FOCUS are incorporated in Canada (1994), Europe (1996), United States (1996) and Pakistan (1998). Each unit has a Board of Directors and Managements. The FOCUS International Coordinating Committee coordinates their activities on global level. FOCUS has progressively refined its capability to mobilize local manpower and other resources to permit prompt needs assessments and distribution of emergency relief supplies to the Afghan refugees. Their service includes provision of food, primary health care, education and assistance in moving from refugee camps to permanent housing.

On April 3, 2002, the Humanitarian organizations continue to provide aid in clearing up the aftermath of the earthquake in the Afghan town of Nahrin. The delivery of aid to the region is being complicated by the difficult accessibility of the regions, mines, poor sanitary conditions and changeable weather. After a meeting with the local authorities in Nahrin, which took place on 29 March, FOCUS Humanitarian Assistance is also implementing an emergency programme to resolve the problems of drinking water and sanitation.

In the delivery of food supplies, FOCUS works with World Food Program of the United Nations in Kabul and Badakhshan, and to address malaria cases with the World Health Organization. Other partner organizations include the Afghan Red Crescent Society, OXFAM, Afghan Aid International Committee of the Red Cross, and the AKDN institutions, particularly the Pamir Relief Development Program. FOCUS is also involved in the distribution of educational supplies such as paper, desks and chairs for children and in the distribution of shoes for children. FOCUS employs local citizens to carry out its programs, in an effort to build local capacity and create self-sufficiency. Global Positioning Systems (GPS) is a relatively new technology by which a network of satellites in space transmits constant signals to hand-held receivers, which capture the position of the operator on the earth's surface to provide co-ordinates. GPS is used to identify land features, such as highways, schools, etc., and is useful for identifying areas that may be affected by natural disasters. FOCUS seeks to provide emergency humanitarian relief and assistance. It is a crisis management and response agency established by the Ismaili community to provide emergency assistance at times of natural and human-induced disasters and facilitate the resettlement and rehabilitation of displaced people impacted by these crisis. FOCUS provides assistance to families who have lost or have had to leave their homes during a crisis, with a view to helping them return when the situation is stabilized, or to helping them resettle elsewhere if this is not possible. It works with governments and other agencies to co-ordinate and delivers humanitarian relief assistance and service. It also undertakes disaster preparedness effort, identifies areas where the community resides that may be most at risk, and assist local populations irrespective of cast and creed to mobilize resources and prevent or better manage crisis situations.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral FOOD, LAWFUL AND UNLAWFULEncyclopedia Topic

In recent times, with the rapid means of communication, the Muslims are increasingly coming into the contact with the western countries more than ever before. Owing to their special dietary laws, the Muslims are confronted with the question of the consumption of the meat of animals slaughtered by the Christians and Jews.

During the advent of Islam, the Meccan society in general and the poor people in particular were running into tremendous economic problems in their daily life. The poor people were obliged to borrow money from the Meccan bankers at heavy interest. In addition, the religious taboos in Meccan society, concerning the consumption of the flesh of several kinds of animals, made life almost intolerable. It is against this grim background that the greatness and freshness of the divine message can fully realized. They had seen a long list of prohibited foods and the exploitation of the bankers. Under these conditions, the Prophet was asked as to what foods were prohibited. He replied in the words of the Koran: "Say: In all that has been revealed to me, I do not find any thing forbidden to eat, if one wants to eat, thereof, unless it be carrion, or blood poured forth, or the flesh of swine-for that, behold, is loathsome-or a sinful offering over which any name other than God has been invoked. But if one is driven by necessity-neither coveting it nor exceeding his immediate need-then (know that), behold, the Sustainer is much-forgiving, a dispenser of grace" (6:145).

It infers from the above verse that everything in principle is lawful to be consumed by a Muslim, and God alone has the right to forbid some harmful things to be consumed as foods, for He being the Creator alone knows what is good or bad for His creatures. Besides, prohibition of a particular food can be made only through a clear injunction. Another extraneous source of prohibition would be against the spirit of the teaching of Islam.

While the people were brought up in an environment deeply influenced by centuries' old custom, religious superstitions and prejudices, it was not easy to break down the barriers, because their minds agitated by doubts, which could be, as they wanted, removed by further instructions. That is the reason that the Koran repeatedly made statement dealing with the various kinds of foods lawful or unlawful to Muslims. Thus, the second time a statement akin to the first one (6:145) was revealed: "So eat of what God has provided you, lawful and good; and be you thankful for the blessing of God, if it be Him that you serve. These things only He has forbidden you carrion, blood, and the flesh of swine, what has been hallowed to other than God. Yet whoso is constrained, not desiring nor transgressing, the God is Forgiving, Merciful. And do not say, as to what your tongue falsely describe, "this is lawful and this is forbidden," so that you may forge against God falsehood, surely those who forge against God falsehood shall not prosper" (16:114-118).

In order to emphasized once again, the Koran repeated the same injunction: "O you who believe! Eat of the good things wherewith We have provided you, and give thanks to God, if it be Him that you serve. These things only has He forbidden you: carrion, blood, and the flesh of swine, what has been hallowed to other than God. Yet whoso is constrained, not desiring, nor transgressing, no sin shall be on him, surely God is Forgiving, Merciful" (2:172-3).

And for the fourth times, the Koran says, "Forbidden to you are carrion, blood, the flesh of swine, what has been hallowed to other than God, the beast strangled (munkhaniqa), the beast beaten to death (mawqudha), the beast fallen to death (mutaraddiya), the beast gored (natiha), and that devoured by beast of prey (ma akala l'sabu'u) excepting that you have sacrificed duly as also thigs sacrificed to idols, and that you divide by the arrows, that is transgression. This day, the unbelievers have despaired of your religion, therefore fear them not, but fear you Me. (5:3).

It clearly means that the following four things are expressly prohibited in the Koran:

Firstly, the animal dies itself. The word mayta means corpse. If an animal had died by accident and had not been slaughtered before death, it would be considered as a dead animal or carrion. Secondly, the blood (damm), which is poured forth. This was also forbidden by the law of Moses (Lev. 7:26). Thirdly, the flesh of swine (lahm khinzir). This was also forbidden by the law of Moses (Lev. 11:7). Jesus Christ, like a true Jew seems to have held the swine in abhorrence: "Neither cast ye your pearls before swine" (Mt. 7:6). He is also reported to have cast out a number of unclean spirits, which he then allowed to go into a herb of swine, causing it to perish thereby (Mt. 8:30-32; Mk. 5:11, 12). This shows that he looked upon the animal as unclean. Fourthly, the food over which any other name than that of God has been invoked at the time of slaughtering it, or the meat consecrated to anything other than God. The custom of reciting name of a deity was the practice of the pagan Meccans, but the Koran opposed it in very strong terms. It is related that some Jews asked the Prophet, "We eat flesh of an animal cut by ourselves and not cut by God". By "not by God" the Jews meant corpses of dead animals. It was at this time the Koranic verse revealed: "Do not eat on which the name of God has not been mentioned, for it is a sin" (6:121).

According to the law of Islam, all animals that are allowed as food must be slaughtered in such a manner that blood flows out. The Arabic word for slaughter is dhabaha, means he cut or divided lengthwise; in a general sense, he killed or slaughtered, and technically he slaughtered an animal in the manner prescribed by law, i.e. by cutting the two external jugular veins, or by butting the throat, from beneath, at the part next to the head. According to the law, four veins are cut off in slaughtering an animal, hulqum or the windpipe, mari' or the aesophagus and the wadajan or two external jugular veins. In the Koran, however, this word is used in a general sense, while the technical word for slaughtering an animal for food in a particular manner is tadhkiya, which occurs in 5:3. The idea underlying this particular manner of slaughter is causing the blood to flow so that the poisons or virus contained in it should not form part of food.

The food of the followers of the Ahl al-Kitab is expressly allowed in the Koran: "And the food of those who have been given the Book is lawful for you, and your food is lawful for them" (5:5). Thus, the meat purveyed by Christians and Jews is allowed for food unreservedly, irrespective of their religious convictions and their method of slaughtering the animals, and a Muslim may therefore invite the followers of Ahl al-Kitab to his own table and he may eat at their table.

The Dhabihat al-Arab (Animals slaughtered by desert Arab) is the heading of one of the chapters of Bukhari, and under this is mentioned a tradition that a certain people came to the Prophet and enquired of him about meat, which was brought to them by other people, and they did not know whether the name of God had been invoked over it or not. The Prophet said, "You mention the name of God over it and eat it" (Bukhari, 72:30). This gives a wide latitude in doubtful and difficult cases where a Muslim must depend on food provided or prepared by the non-Muslims.

Shaikh Abu Bakr Mahmud Ghammoo, the Chief Justice of Northern Nigeria, maintains that the verses permitting Muslims to eat the meat killed by the Jews and Christians are combined by a conjunctive particle of waw, and this gives the impression of permission. This is supported by the action of the Companions of the Prophet when they went to Syria. They ate the meat supplied by the Christians without enquiring as to how their animal was killed. (cf. al-Muslimun, Geneva, 1964, p. 53). As for the question about the use of the modern method of slaughtering in the western countries, it can be safely maintained that the humane method of killing is not only permitted but also near the spirit of the tradition of the Prophet, who once said, "God has prescribed kindness to everything. If you kill, then kill in the best way, and if you slaughter, then slaughter in the best manner" (al-Muslim, 6:72).

To save the animals from unnecessary pain, the Prophet recommended the use of a sharp knife for cutting the jugular vein, which was the finest and the least pain-giving method. The modern method of slaughtering animals consists of stunning the animal before cutting the throat with a captive bolt pistol or by electricity, or with a mixture of carbon dioxide gas with air. The captive bolt pistol destroys that part of the brain, which controls the action of the heart; electrical stunning and carbon dioxide anesthesia do not destroy any part of the brain, but prevent the brain from receiving sensations of pain. After stunning by any method the main blood vessels of the neck are severed and the animal bleeds to death. There is little possibility of an animal recovering from the brain damage inflicted by the captive bolt pistol, but animals will recover from the effects of electrical stunning and carbon dioxide anesthesia, if they are not slaughter immediately. "If new means of slaughtering are more quick and sharp, their employment is a more desirable thing. It comes under the saying of the Prophet, "God has ordered us to be kind to everything" (Inna Allah katabal ihsan ala kulli shay'in) cf. al-Muslimun, Geneva, 1964, p. 108.

Abdul Wahhab Khallaf, the Egyptian theologian writes in Liwa al-Islam (Cairo, 1949, p.131) that, "The cattle and all other animals which the Christians and Jews slaughter in a manner which makes it lawful for them to eat according to their religions, are lawful for Muslims to eat." In his al-Bahrul Muhit (3:431), Abu Hayyan Gharnatiy writes, "The first and prime view is that their (the Christians and Jews) foods are lawful for the Muslims whether they have mentioned the name of God over it or any other name."

The Mufti of Jordan said, "The jurists have agreed that a Muslim is allowed to eat meat offered by a man of Ahl al-Kitab. It is not right for him to suspect the method of their slaughtering, whether or not the name of God has been invoked at the time of slaughtering. It is not even good to make an enquiry on that matter, because the verses in the Koran are absolute without any restriction (mutlaq). A considerable number of religious doctors have said that animals cut by a man of Ahl al-Kitab are permitted for Muslims to eat, whatever may be the method of slaughtering. The Prophet was offered some roast lamb by some Jews, and he ate without querying its method of slaughter. His Companions also observed his custom by eating meat offered by Christian when they were in Syria. Those who do not eat their meat in Europe and the U.S.A. according to opinions held by some who are against the above mentioned views, have no reason for doing so, save illusion (wahm)." cf. al-Muslimun, Geneva, 1964, p. 111.

The qadi of Medina, Ata (d. 721 A.D.) and Rabee'ah and al-Laythi (d. 791 A.D.), the Mufti of Egypt made similar statements in this context. In his Mabsoot, Sarakhsiy (d. 899 A.D.) writes, "The flesh of animal slaughtered by a Christian is always lawful for the Muslim to eat, whether or not the Christian has invoked the Trinity when slaughtering the animal."

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral GABRIEL [ see JIBRAIL ]Encyclopedia TopicEncyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral GadEncyclopedia Topic

Bury

Various Sources Gad gadEncyclopedia Topic

To implore, to beseech

Various Sources GadaEncyclopedia Topic

Bullock-cart

Various Sources GaddiEncyclopedia Topic

Seat, throne, the throne of Imam, holy money, saintly money

Various Sources GadhEncyclopedia Topic

Fort, centre

Various Sources GadhoEncyclopedia Topic

Red

Various Sources GaduaEncyclopedia Topic

Pot

Various Sources GafalEncyclopedia Topic

Ignorant, oblivious

Various Sources GAFaLNoun

Ignorant.

Heritage Dictionary of Ismailism, entry #556general GafalaEncyclopedia Topic

Oblivious, careless

Various Sources GaflaiEncyclopedia Topic

Oblivion, carelessness

Various Sources GagadseEncyclopedia Topic

Will thunder, will peal

Various Sources