Ismaili Dictionary & Encyclopedia

Indra phalEncyclopedia Topic

A type of bitter fruit, indran

Various Sources IndranEncyclopedia Topic

A fruit, beautiful to look, but very bitter in taste

Various Sources IndriEncyclopedia Topic

Sense

Various Sources Industrial Promotion Services (IPS)Encyclopedia Topic

Launched in 1963 to reinforce private sector activity in industrial development in Asia and Africa, the Industrial Promotion (IPS) is an industrial development and venture capital institution. IPS companies exist in Bangladesh, Cote d'Ivoire, Kenya, Tanzania, Pakistan, Uganda and Zaire; in the developed world, there are now IPS joint ventures in small and medium-sized businesses in Canada and the United Kingdom. A focal point for these nine affiliates and a clearinghouse for technical information is provided by Industrial Promotion Services S.A. Switzerland. From its inception, IPS has worked to link strong local entrepreneurial talent to technical support, professional management, national and international development institutions and sources of private investment. Its national affiliates' knowledge of local conditions and rigorous management standards have made them attractive partners for foreign investors. Over sixty industrial projects have been launched through partnerships, including industrial packaging, metallurgy, tele-communications, leather tanneries and food processing. IPS's experience to date in the developing world has given it particular strength in several industrial sectors: agro-based products for export, metal products, plastics, printing and packaging, and textiles. Specific regional strengths have been achieved

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral INDUSTRIAL PROMOTION SERVICES [ see AKDN ]Encyclopedia Topic

INFALLIBILITY OF PROPHETS AND IMAMS [ see MASUM ]

INFIDEL [ see KAFIR ]

INHERITANCE [ see MIRAS ]

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral Influence of the New MoonEncyclopedia Topic

Sir Isaac Newton's theory of gravity speaks that every particle attracts every other particle with a force that depends on their masses and the distance between them. The moon constantly attracts the earth behaves like a loose garment that can be pulled out from the body to fall back again. It implies that every day, when the moon is directly overhead, the water of the earth flows out towards the moon, and causes high tide. Hence, during the full moon, the attraction is greater than the normal. Dr. Lyall Watson writes in Supernature (London, 1973, p. 49) that, "Every drop of water in the ocean responds to this force, and every living marinal animal and plant is made aware of the rhythm. The lives of those that inhabit the margins of the seas depend entirely on this awareness."

Sir J.G. Frazer has discussed the influence of the new moon and propounded that it brings fertility and causes growth in agriculture (The Golden Bough, London, 1956, p. 128). Sir Frank Browne writes in his remarks in 1964 that, "The life of the oyster has a marked rhythm that corresponds to the tidal rhythm of the waters. The fascinating thing; however was that the behaviour of all the oysters had altered in exactly the same way, and they were still keeping time with each other. The oysters had adopted a new rhythm and now opened up at the time of tide. This is the first piece of scientific evidence to show that even an organism living away from the ocean tides could be influenced by the coming out of new moon" (Living Organism, London, 1969, p. 12).

The small silver fish, known as Grunion survives on its response to the lunar cycle. Shortly after the new moon from March to August, the Grunion appears on the surface on the shores of California. The Grunion leave their eggs buried in the wet sand undisturbed for two weeks, because the waves of water will not come until new moon. When the spring tide occurs, the larvae have completely developed and they break out of the eggs and swim away through the surf. The ability of the Grunion to reproduce is thus controlled by the new moon.

Land animals are also influenced by the new moon. The May flies may live only for a few hours, during which time they have to find another fly mate and lay their eggs in water. To accomplish this, it is necessary that all the flies emerge together at around the same time. Lake Victoria, the source of Nile river has a successful species of May fly, called Provilla Adusta. These insects use the new moon as a signal for the time to emerge, and thus ensure the survival of their species (The Sea Around Us, London, 1979, p. 15 by Rachel Carson).

The human birth times are closely linked to the lunar cycle. The two doctors collected information on more than half a million birth that occurred in New York hospital between 1948 and 1957. This instance showed a clear report of normal delivery chiefly during the new moon (Lunar Periodicity in Human Reproduction, New York, 1959)

There is a close connection between the new moon and the bleeding in general. The scientists have discovered that the new moon controls the flow of blood in the same way that it controls the tides. Edson Andrew reports that in a survey of over a thousand bleeders, the patients needing unusual means of hemostats (of preventing bleeding) on the operating table. Almost 82% of all the bleeding crisis occurred between the first and the last quarters of the moon. It means that a minimum of crisis (only 18%) occurred in that half of the lunar month centered around the new moon. Dr. Andrew comments, "These data have been so conclusive and convincing to me that I threaten to become a witch-doctor and operate on dark night only, saving the moonlight nights for romance." When it is moonlight, it is not new moon as during new moon, there is no light (Cycle in your Life, London, 1976 by Dr. Duff)

Leonard Ravitz had discovered a direct physiological link between man and the moon. He found that all people show a cyclic pattern between the head and a chest reading, which is in accordance with the lunar cycle, vide Periodic Changes in Electromagnetic Fields, New York, 1960 by L.V. Ravitz.

It is well known fact that mental patients or lunatics are greatly influenced mentally by the lunar cycle. The full moon is a time of unusually high activity among the mental patients, and the staff working in mental hospitals is not generally permitted to take a day off when it is full moon, because the whole group of staff is required to be able to manage the increased activity amongst the patients. In contrast, the new moon is a time of unusual quiet among mental patients. Activity in normal hospitals is also significantly increased at the time of full moon.

Whatever the time chosen, there are two days in every month and such days are when the sun and moon come into opposition, i.e., the new moon. On such occasions, the spiritual forces are released on earth and the aspirant must take an advantage of them. These forces are grace for those who are meditating, vide The Quest of the Ourself by Paul Brunton.

LAKAB [ see ALKAB ]

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral InglaEncyclopedia Topic

The left nostril

Various Sources Ingla PinglaEncyclopedia Topic

The two nostrils, names of two veins in the body

Various Sources INSHA'ALLAHEncyclopedia Topic

It means if God wills (43:23), a phrase, in the Islamic terminology is called istisna, which is taken from the Koran: "Say not thou of a thing: `I will surely do it tomorrow’ – except (istisna) if God so wills” (18:23). The phrase is uttered when talking about the future. It recognizes the supreme power of God, who alone decides the events of the future. It refers to the future and expresses man’s confidence in God’s Will and the realization that nothing can be achieved without His Will. One repeats this phrase about events in the future, which despite all human effort cannot be realized with certainty except with Divine succour and consent. No matter how much we plan we do not know whether tomorrow we shall be here or elsewhere, or whether we shall be in the same state as now, and so we plan and act but fully conscious of the dependence of this action on the Divine Will, that Will which infinitely transcends ours.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral INSTITUTE OF ISMAILI STUDIES LTD.Encyclopedia Topic

In 1974, the Present Imam held a conference in Nairobi, which was participated by the scholars and eleven Ismailia Associations. Later, the members of the conference were invited in Paris in April, 1975, where an International Co-ordinating Committee was formed under the Ismailia Association for Kenya. On that occasion, the Imam said, “We are living in a world of material speed. Until now we have devoted insufficient time and thought on our history and theology. We must find uniform answers to the meaning of Islam, our practice etc. No discussion to take place on such matters by qualified people. Correct interpretation of faith is necessary. Search should be made for Shi’a documents – Fatimid theology and practices also Persian theology and history. We should have broad concept not to compromise on certain issues. Yet our practice should be comprehensible to other Muslims. Arabic language is necessary for understanding esoteric meaning of faith. We should resist criticism but we will not compromise on fundamental issues.”

Almost two and a half years later, in August, 1977, the Institute of Ismaili Studies opened its first offices in a series of small suites in Central London. In addition to the Executive Officer and Board of Governors, chaired by the Imam, the Institute soon hired academic and support staff and began to tackle some of the themes that were raised at the Paris Conference.

In his message of November 25, 1977, the Imam announced the formation of the Institute of Ismaili Studies in London. The Imam said, “It gives me great happiness to inform my jamat of the formal inauguration in London of the Institute of Ismaili Studies. As my spiritual children are aware, not since the Fatimid period had there been in existence a Research Centre for Ismaili studies, manned essentially by outstanding Ismaili men and women scholars. This is therefore a significant step in making it possible for my jamat to secure the fruits of Ismaili scholarship in the history, philosophy, theology and literature of Ismailism and Islam by virtue of an academic institution created by our own efforts and resources. Over the past decades, I have given much thought to this project, and have also discussed it with a number of my spiritual children, as well as others whose experience I considered relevant to the creation of an institution of this nature. My jamat is also aware that the formal plans for the establishment of the Institute of Ismaili Studies were finalize during the Ismailia Association Conference in Paris in April, 1975, when a number of Ismaili leaders and scholars met to review with me an international programme of Ismailia Association endeavour. Since that time, work on the many diverse aspects of establishing a recognized academic institution has continued and I am happy to announce today to my jamat that the Institute of Ismaili Studies is now in operation. At the request of the leaders of the jamat, I have accepted for the time being the position of the Chairman of the Board of Governors, which will be responsible for the Institute’s management. Being its Chairman gives me the opportunity to supervise personally its overall policy and functioning. My primary concern in this role is to ensure that the work of the Institute is of direct relevance and benefit to my jamat. In time to come, it is my wish that this Institution should assume its correct position in matters, such as religious education in the jamat, through the preparation of material and manpower of a superior level. I have therefore directed that the Institute as part of its initial work programme embark on compiling a History of Ismailis and undertake an international training programme for creating waezeen and religion teachers capable of imparting knowledge and understanding of our faith to our young generation. In the years ahead, Inshall-allah, we shall create at the Institute a well stocked library as well as archives for manuscripts, books, artifacts and other material of interest and relevance to Islam and Ismailism and other faiths. It is my sincerest wish that in the future the Institute of Ismaili Studies will become one of the major institutions of my jamat. It is my hope that from its modest beginnings, the Institute will grow into an internationally recognized academic center, and that this day will be recalled with pride by Ismailis many years from now. I extend my warm congratulations and give my most affectionate paternal maternal loving blessings to all those beloved spiritual children who over the years have worked on the creation of the Institute of Ismailis Studies. To those who are attached to the Institute now in either an honorary or professional capacity, I give my best loving blessings for success in their work. I send my most affectionate paternal maternal loving blessings to all my beloved spiritual children on this happy occasion.”

In 1979, the Institute of Ismaili Studies established a library. The manuscripts spread across the jamat, in private collections as well as in Jamatkhana libraries, in various parts of the world were collected. Printed and audiovisual materials were also acquired, including both studies of the community as well as publications produced by the jamat. Today, the Institute’s library contains one of the largest collections of Ismaili-related materials in the world. Supplemented by a large collection of materials in related disciplines, the library’s holdings include over 25,000 items consisting of manuscripts, artifacts, printed materials and audiovisual resources.

The first of several human resource development initiatives was launched in 1980. It aimed to provide interested and dedicated individuals within important skills, tools and perspective in relevant fields, while at the same time creating resources for the jamat in areas where there was a lack of relevant professional competencies. The programs were also linked to graduate programs in reputed universities, so that individuals would acquire the necessary academic credentials. Since 1994, the Institute has been offering its Graduate Program in Islamic Studies and Humanities.

In tandem with the development of human resources, the Paris Conference had stressed the need for a quality international curriculum to meet the religious education needs of the jamat in modern times. This was realized in the publication of the Ta’lim curriculum, whose preschool component was first published in 1985. Now the Ta’lim curriculum for primary education is available in nine language and used by over 100,000 Ismaili children worldwide. The Institute is at present readying the materials for the secondary curriculum, which will help to provide a strong grounding in the tariqah for Ismaili youth. An effective transmission of such knowledge requires professionally trained teachers with normative grounding as well as knowledge of secular humanistic and scientific disciplines. A program to train a cadre of teacher-trainees for this purpose is currently in preparation.

As early as 1983, the Institute began to publish scholarly monographs and translations to make available to academic institutions and the jamat, contemporary research on different aspects of Islam, Shi’ism and the Ismaili tariqah. The Institute has also begun to hold a series of high-profile conferences that look at the engagement of Muslims with the modern world, whose proceedings were also published. Hence, the Institute has published more than 40 monographs, edited volumes and collection catalogues, and as a result has reinvigorated and given a credible and articulate voice to Shi’ite and Ismaili Studies in academic circles.

The Institute also plays an important role in contributing intellectually to the contemporary endeavours of the Ismaili Imamate, such as the Aga Khan Development Network and other institutions. By doing so, it is able to share perspectives that underpin these institutional initiatives to realism the social conscience of Islam.

To meet the changing needs of the jamat and the new realities of the Muslim world, the Institute has also embarked on several new initiatives over the past few years. The first of these is the formation of a Central Asian Studies Unit (CASU), which supports, build upon and complements the work of Project Tajikistan, originally set up in 1995 after the collapse of the Soviet Union. CASU’s mandate is to explore and commission scholarship on Islam in Central Asia.

The Institute has also formed a Koranic Studies Unit to explore the plurality of interpretations given to the Koran and its diverse negotiations in Muslim societies. As part of its 25th anniversary celebrations, the Institute convened a three-day international colloquium on the Koran and its expression in the arts. The Koranic Studies Unit has also embarked on an ambitious new publication series with Oxford University Press, which is being launched in 2004.

In the changing landscape of the Muslim world, the Institute will have an even more important role to play in the years ahead. Before twenty-five years, it would have been difficult to predict the type of world we live in today. The emphasis and responsibility that is placed upon Muslims in the contemporary world; the geographic dispersion of the jamat and oscillating political and social realities have necessitated an institution that is increasingly capable of addressing new and emerging challenges creatively and intelligently. The Institute, under the guidance of the Imam, will continue to adapt to address the needs of the jamat and the Muslim ummah in the years ahead.

In October, 2003, the Institute celebrated the 25th anniversary. The celebrations reflected the very nature of the Institute, its evolution and the global Ismaili Muslim community. On 19th October, 2003, fifteen students of the class of 2004, from seven countries, received certificates at a Graduation Ceremony presided over by the Imam. More than 1600 guests witnessed the event held at Le Meridian Grosvenor House Hotel in London. Addressing the students, the Imam said, “You have opted to undertake a systematic study of your heritage. I hope that you feel that this choice has not been in vain…The studies you have undertaken should, I believe, enable you to play a role in helping to address the issues of contemporary relevance to Muslim societies.”

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral IntadiyaEncyclopedia Topic

Bricks

Various Sources INTERCESSION [ see SHAFA'A ]Encyclopedia TopicEncyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISHARaTNoun

Portée allusive d'un texte. Réservé pour l'élite (Khawass*).

Heritage Dictionary of Ismailism, entry #50general ISHQEncyclopedia Topic

The word ishq is derived from ashiqa. The ashiqa is a creeper called liblab in Arabic and ishq-pechan in Persian. When this creeper twines itself around a tree, it deprives it of its leaves and fruits. The tree turns yellow and a few days later dries up. Similarly, when love takes its root in the heart of a lover, every one other than the beloved is effaced in the effulgence of the beloved's beauty; the very being of the lover is annihilated and there remains nothing save the beloved.

Another word for love is mahabbat, which is said to have derived from hibbat, which are a kind of seeds that fall to the earth in the desert. The name hubb (love) was given to such desert seeds (hibb) because love is the source of life just as seeds are the origin of plants. When the seeds are scattered in the desert, they became hidden in the earth, and rain falls upon them and sun shines upon them, and cold and heat pass over them, yet they are not corrupted by the changing seasons, but grow up and bear flowers and give fruit, so love, when it takes its dwelling in the heart, is not corrupted by presence or absence, by pleasure or pain, by separation or union. Others says that mahabbat is derived from hubb, meaning a jar full of stagnant water because when love is kindled in heart and fills it, there is no room there for any thought except of the beloved. Others also claim that mahabbat is derived from hubb meaning the four conjoined pieces of wood (on which a water-jug is placed), because a lover lightly bears whatever his beloved metes out to him

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISLAMEncyclopedia Topic

"Islam means entering into salm, and salm and salim both signify peace. Both these words are used in the sense of peace in the Koran (2:208 and 8:61). The Koran says: "And Lord, make us submissive to Thee" (2:128). The word Islam does not only signify submission, it also signifies entering into peace, and the Muslim is one who makes his peace with God and man. Peace with God implies complete submission to His will in the sense in which it is used in the phrase aslama wajha hu li'Allahi, i.e., He has submitted his face to God. Islam is derived from aslama, occurring 22 times in the Koran, which means submitting oneself, thus Islam signifies the religion of entire submission to God. The word Islam is used eight times in the Koran, while the word Muslim occurs 42 times, means one who submits. Among the eight Koranic verses, three of them (6:125, 61:7 and 38:22) stress the Islamic quality of interiority, three (5:3, 3:19 and 3:85) stress the connection of Islam with din, and two (9:74 and 39:17) condemns the unbelief of those who had made a profession of faith.

In defining the lexical meaning, Ibn al-Anbari (d. 328/939) said, “Islam means making one’s religion and faith God’s alone” (cf. Tafsir al-Kabir, 1:432). This definition agrees with that given of Islam by the Prophet. He was once asked, “What is Islam?” and he replied, “It consists in giving your heart solely to God and in making Muslim safe from your tongue and hand.” On another occasion, the Prophet said, “Islam is external faith belongs to the heart” (Masnad, 3:134).

Islam is the last of the great religions. Not only the last, it is an all-inclusive religion which contains within itself all past religions. The Koran says of Abraham: “When his Lord said to him, ‘submit’ (aslim), he said: I have submitted (aslamtu) to the Lord of the worlds”

And in this way, too, God said: “The true religion with God is Islam (submission to God),” and in this way also Joseph prayed: “O make me to die in true submission (musliman), that is to say, “Make me one of those who submit themselves to what pleases Thee.” Moreover, God says to the Prophet: “You will not make anyone listen to you except those who believe in Our signs and thus are submissive (muslimun), that is to say, they who yield to truth and submit to it. And finally, “By which (Torah) the Prophets who had submitted themselves (aslamu) to the Lord gave judgment.” Noah said to his people: “If you turn from me, I have not asked you for any reward. No wages are due to me except from God, and I have been commanded to be of the muslimun (those who submit)” (10:72).

The Koran says of Abraham: “Abraham was neither Jew nor Christian, but he was a man of pure faith, musliman (submitting to God): certainly he was no idolater” (111:67). While Abraham and Ismael were raising up the foundation of the Kaba, they prayed: “Accept this from us Lord, for You are indeed the All-Hearing, the All-Knowing. Our Lord, make us muslimaini (submissive) to You, and of our offspring a nation muslimah (submissive) to You, and show us our holy rites and turn to us. You are indeed the Oft-Turning, the Merciful” (2:128). Abraham and Jacob did not omit to enjoin their sons to be submissive: “Abraham charged his sons with this, and Jacob likewise: My sons, God has chosen for you the religion – see that you die not except as muslimun (submitting to Him) (2:132). And when death came to Jacob he was anxious to depart to his Lord feeling reassured about his sons, so he asked them: “What will you serve when I am gone? They replied: We will serve your God and the God of your forefathers, Abraham, Ismael and Isaac – the One God - to Him we are muslimun (submissive) (2:132-3). Moses said to his people: “If you believe in God, my people, put your trust in Him if you are truly muslimun (submissive to Him) (10:84). Joseph turned to God in gratitude and prayed: “Lord, You have given me to rule, and You have taught me the interpretation of dream. Originator of the heavens and earth, You are my Protector in this world and in the next! Make me die musliman (in submission) and join me with the righteous” (12:101). And God inspired Jesus’ apostles: “Believe in Me and My messenger. They said: We believe – witness that we are muslimun (submissive) (5:3). And when Jesus perceived his people’s unbelief, he asked them: “Who are my helper in the cause of God? The apostles replied: We are the helpers of God – we believe in Him: witness that we are muslimun (submissive)” (3:52).

In sum, it clearly indicates that the naming of followers of Islam in the present era as Muslims is seen to have taken place long before their time. Here is another Koranic verse which, referring to Abraham, specifies certain aspects of the mission which God has laid upon the shoulders of the Muslim nation, in which there is a Divine directive which should be the motto of every Muslim: “And struggle for God as is His due, for He has chosen you, and has laid on you no impediment in your religion, being the creed of your father, Abraham. He named you Muslims in former times, and in this the Messenger may testify against you, and you may testify against your fellow-men. So keep up the prayer, pay the alms-tax and hold fast to God: He is your Protector, and Excellent Protector, and an Excellent Helper.” (22:78)

God addressed the Prophet: “Say: It is revealed unto me that your God is One God – will you submit to Him?” (21:108). He is also commanded when addressing the ahl al-kitab to say to them: “Oh People of Book! Come now to a word that is common to both of us, that we serve none and we associate none with Him and do not take any from among us as lords apart from God. And if they turn away say: Bear witness that we are Muslims.” (3:64)

In another verse God delineates the true believers and true Messenger, indicating in passing the difference between belief and unbelief: “No mortal to whom God has given the Scriptures and whom He has endowed with judgment and prophethood would say to men, ‘Worship me instead of God’ but rather, ‘Be God-orientated, for you have studied and taught the scriptures.’ Nor would he order you to serve the angels and the prophets as your gods: what, would he order you to disbelieve after you have submitted” (3:79-80). Thus in a general, all-embracing way, God explains the nature of religious beliefs, in the form of a rhetorical question: “Who is there that has a better religion than he who surrenders himself entirely to God, doing good” (4:125).

From all these verses we come to realize that the essence of Islam in the sphere of belief is surrendering oneself to God, which means, in the first instance, believing in the Unity of God and then that the Unity of God demands that we worship none but Him. It implies that we equate nothing with Him. It demands further that we must be entirely God-orientated, turning to Him alone, and putting our sole hope and trust in Him.

It follows, therefore, that Islam or self-surrender, is the path of guidance. The Koran says: “Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam” (6:125) and “And he whose breast has been expanded to Islam receives light from his Lord” (39:22).

Submission to God is explained by Him through the examples of the Prophet, whom he addressed in the Koran: “Say: My prayer, my ritual sacrifice, my living, my dying – all belong to God, the Lord of all being. No peer has He. Thus I have been commanded, and I am the first of those who submit” (6:162).

It follows, therefore, that the word “Islam” is the perfect definition of “Religion” and it also follows that the proposition: “Verily the true religion with God is Islam” (3:19) is equally exact. The next proposition, which is based on this, is again undoubtedly exact: “Whosoever desires a religion other than Islam, it shall not be accepted of him; in the next world he shall be among the losers” (3:85).

Whoever rejects “submission to God” rejects “religion” itself. The Koran speaks of a group of sincere followers from among the People of Book who, as soon as the Koran was read to them, declared that they were indeed Muslims and that they had in fact been Muslims before the Koran had come to their attention: “We have sent Our word to them, so that they may be reminded. Those to whom We gave the Scriptures before this believed in it, and when it is recited to them, they say, ‘We believe in it; surely it is the truth from our Lord. Indeed, even before it was revealed we had surrendered.’ Those shall be given their recompense twice over” (28:51).

The logical conclusion from this, therefore, is declared by the Koran itself: “He has ordained for you as religion that with which He charged Noah and that which We have revealed to you, and that with which We charged Abraham, Moses and Jesus, saying: Observe this faith, and be not divided regarding it; but that to which you call them is unacceptable to the idolaters. God chooses for Himself whom He will; and guides to Himself those who repent” (42:13).

Similarly, the Prophet is addressed in the Koran: “Say: We believe in God and that which has been sent down to us, and sent down to Abraham and Ismael, Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and in that which was given to Moses and Jesus, and the prophets of their Lord; we make no distinction between them, and to Him we surrender” (3:84).

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISLAM SHAH (771-827/1370-1423). 30TH IMAMEncyclopedia Topic

"Syed Ahmad Islam Shah was also known as Islam Shah. He is also called Salam Shah and Shri Islam Shah. Imam Islam Shah assumed the Imamate in 771/1370 in Azerbaijan, ruled by Sultan Uways (757-776/1356-1374), the Jalayirid ruler. It seems that during the early 25 years of his Imamate in Azerbaijan, he visited Daylam several times in disguise.

Summing up the sparsely recorded fragments of the ginans, it appears that Imam Islam Shah was a man of middle height, radiant face having piercing eyes. He was a gifted man of sweet disposition and engaging manner. His mole on right cheek was an eye-catching mark. He was a generous and passed sometimes a few months in the woods on hunting excursion.

The Mongol power ended with the death of Abu Sa'id, the last Ilkhanid ruler on November 30, 1335, and some months later, Taymur was born in Samarkand on April 8, 1336. He consolidated his powers as an amir in Samarkand at the age of 30 years and conquered few regions of Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey, Afghanistan and India. He had a vein of cruelty in his character, and so were his soldiers. From 735/1335 when Abu Sa'id died to the year 782/1380, Iran was left to its own device in 45 years, and was divided into four to five petty rules. Taymur spurred his horses towards Iran in 783/1381 and executed several terrible expeditions. He invaded Azerbaijan in 787/1385 when Imam Islam Shah was probably in Daylam. Taymur crushed the Muzaffarid of Ispahan and cost the lives of about 70,000 of its inhabitants, whose heads were piled in pyramids.

The Ismailis had hardly set up their livings that the Taymurid danger began to loom large on the Iranian horizon. He attacked Mazandaran, Sistan and Fars in 794/1392 and conducted bloody massacres of the local Ismailis. In 795/1393, Taymur swept the thick population of the Ismailis in Amul, the principal town of Tabaristan, lying along the south coast of the Caspian Sea; and also Astrabad, the city of Jurjan province to the north frontier of Mazandaran. During his campaign in Iran in Rajab, 795/May, 1393 while going to Hamadan from Ispahan, Taymur spent few days in Anjudan inhabited by the poor Ismailis. His soldiers wildly butchered many Ismailis and pillaged their properties. According to Sharafuddin Ali Yazdi (d. 858/1454) in Zafar-nama (1:577), "The Ismailis of Anjudan attempted to seek protection in their underground tunnels but they mostly lost their lives when they were flooded out by the Taymur's soldiers." Taymur returned to Samarkand in 798/1396 and died in 807/1405. His empire divided into petty rules, but Turkey, Iraq and India restored their rules he devastated. Iran and Afghanistan however were dominated by the Taymurids, but their internecine strife had badly hit the Iranian economy.

In India, the Tughlaqs gained their power after Taymur's death, which ultimately had fallen to the hand of the Syeds (816-855/1414-1451) and the Lodhis (855-933/1451-1526). The Ottoman empire became powerful once again after Taymur's death and spread their influence in Islamic countries. The Mamluks of Egypt and Syria were dragged into their internal disputes. When Taymur invaded Turkey and Syria, the rule of Mamluks was confined only to Cairo. After Taymur, the Turkish ruler occupied Egypt.

After a long series of bloody expeditions in Iran, Taymur had gone to Samarkand on July 18, 1396 and Iran once again breathed peacefully. Imam Islam Shah, in the meantime, also began to trek from Azerbaijan to Kahek in Iran. Pir Hasan Kabiruddin (d. 853/1449) writes in his ginan that: "It was Vikram Samavat 1452, the 17th of Ashad (or July 2, 1396) when Imam Islam Shah arrived in Kahek." It is related that Imam Islam Shah had made long journey in Iran to examine the region most suitable, and finally selected Kahek and Shahr-i Babak for his residence.

The Iranian Ismailis lived peacefully in Fars, Khorasan, Kahek, Anjudan, and Rudhbar etc. Meanwhile, Muhammad Shah, the son of Momin Shah bin Imam Shamsuddin Muhammad is reported to have appeared in Daylam, but his contact with the Imam is historically shrouded in clouds. He is however said to have joined Kiya Malik, the Hazaraspid ruler for taking the possession of Ashkawar. Muhammad Shah mustered the local Ismailis and formed his force, and subdued Syed Mahdi Kiya with the help of Kiya Malik. Syed Mahdi Kiya was arrested and sent to Tabriz in the court of sultan Uways (757-776/1356-1374), the Jalayirid ruler of Azerbaijan, Iraq and Kurdistan. Kiya Malik reinstated his rule in Ashkawar, and granted the hold of Alamut and its locality to Muhammad Shah in 776/1374. It is known that Syed Mahdi Kiya succeeded to release from imprisonment in 778/1376 with the influence of Tajuddin Amuli, the Zaidi Syed of Timjan, who had been made the governor of Ranikuh by his brother, Syed Ali. Soon afterwards, Syed Ali took field against Ashkawar and defeated Kiya Malik, who fled to Alamut in the hope of being assisted once again by Muhammad Shah, but failed, therefore, he took refuge with Taymur. Meanwhile, the forces of Syed Ali had laid siege to Alamut while pursuing Kiya Malik, and took possession of Alamut. Muhammad Shah had been given self-conduct, and was sent to Taymur, who is reported to have sent him in Sultaniyya, where he died in 807/1404. His descendants escaped from the prison and started their living in Sultaniyya.

In 813/1410, Syed Radi Kiya (798-829/1395-1426), the son of Syed Ali, and a powerful ruler of Lahijan, had expelled the Hazaraspid and Kushayji amirs from Daylam. He also stroke a severe blow to the local Ismailis during his operations, and killed a few of the descendants of Imam Alauddin Muhammad.

Kamaluddin Abdur Razzak (1413-1482), the son of Jalaluddin Ishaq Samarkandi had visited Kirman on May 21, 1441. He compiled Matla'us Sa'dain wa Majmu'ul Bahrain in 874/1470, but makes no mention of the Ismailis. Imam Islam Shah lived in Kahek in obscure, and did not attract the historians to make his mention. Syed Imam Shah (d. 926/1520), who had been in Kahek in the province of Kirman in 854/1450 writes in Motto Das Avatar (verse no. 10:141) that, "Imam Islam Shah resides in Kahek, but the ruler and people do not know him." Nuruddin bin Lutafullah (d. 834/1430) compiled Tarikh-i Hafiz Abru in 829/1425, however gave but a trivial account of the Ismailis during the time of Imam Islam Shah.

The Syrian Ismailis lived in peace during the period under review in Hims, Aleppo, Hammah, Masiyaf, Kadmus etc., and had generated a close contact with Imam Islam Shah through the local da'is. Muhammad bin Sa'd bin Daud (790-859/1378-1455), surnamed ar-Rafnah was a gifted da'i in Syria. He is reported to have visited Kahek few months before the death of Imam Islam Shah in 827/1423. He also attended the ascension ceremony of Imam Muhammad bin Islam Shah. He was a prolific writer and wrote Rasail al-Shifa, refuting the claims of the Momin-shahis. He also wrote Khams Rasail Ismailiyya. Nuruddin Ahmad (d. 849/1445) was another da'i of high fame in Syria, who had travelled widely in Syria, Iraq and Arabia. His Fusul wa-Akhbar deals the history of the Ismailis in Syria. Abul Ma'ali Hatim bin Imran, eminently known as Ibn Zahra also flourished in the period under review, who compiled al-Ahkam wa'l Fatarat and al-Mabda wa'l Ma'ad.

The Ismailis of upper Oxus seems to have unknown about the reduction of Alamut until the time of Imam Islam Shah due to residing at farthest region. Their communication with the Iranian Ismaili Imams collapsed for over 150 years during the operations of Halagu and Taymur. Shagnan, the district of upper Oxus was the chief Ismaili centre in Central Asia, where Syed Malang Shah was followed by Syed Khamush Shah Shirazi. Sir Thomas Douglas Forsyth (1827-1886) in Report on a Mission to Yarkand, Calcutta, 1875 puts his date at 665/1266. Syed Khamush Shah lived longer, and converted the Mongol tribes in upper Oxus. His tomb is at Kal'ai Barpanj. His descendants ruled Shagnan as hereditary Mirs during the time of Imam Islam Shah, who penetrated the Ismaili mission for the first time in China, including Yarkand and Pamir.

Imam Islam granted the title of Bawa to Syed Hashim and deputed him in Punjab as his vakil. He started his mission at his base in Multan, where he assumed the title of Harichandra.

With the indescribable efforts of Pir Sadruddin and Pir Hasan Kabiruddin, a large proselytism had been resulted in Sind, Punjab, Kutchh, Kathiawar and Gujrat by leaps and bounds. Syed Imam Shah admits in his Janatpuri (verse, 89) that, "Ismailism promulgated rapidly in India during the time of Imam Islam Shah."

Imam Islam Shah mostly lived in Kahek, and sometimes in Shahr-i Babak. It is also said that the Ismailis in these villages had built few dens in the upper hills to seek protection during emergency. The period of Imam Islam Shah however passed in peace, and he died in 827/1423. He consigned the office of Imamate to his elder son, Muhammad.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISLAM SHAH (GInan)Name

g. 287:30-31, 125:13, 686, g. "Satgur Shams em boliya aj che dasmo avtar" verse 6

g. 287:30-31, 125:13, 686, g. "Satgour shams ém boliya aj che dasmo awtar" verset 6.

Heritage Dictionary of ismailism, entry #992general ISLAM, IMAGE OF IN WESTERN COUNTRIES Encyclopedia Topic

"Islam originated from monotheism, it conceived idolatry as its real enemy and acted with the purpose of subduing it first in the Arabian Peninsula. The Muslims marched northward into Syria, defeated the army of Heraclius at Yarmuk, and captured Jerusalem and Damascus. They went eastward into Iraq, defeated the Iranian at Seleucia. They further went westward and occupied Egypt away from the Byzantine empire. "In all this expansion" writes T.C. Young in Near Eastern Culture and Society (New Jersey, 1951, p. 100), "there was no forcible conversion of Jews or Christians to the Muslim religion. There was freedom for the people of the book to continue in their own beliefs and practices."

The Koran accepts Christianity and Judaism as divinely revealed religions, therefore, it did not instigate any struggle against them. Christianity first however conceived of Islam as a competitor and therefore, attacked it directly. Since inconoclasticism of Islam was against their frame of mind, the Christianity started a crusade against Islam, and their reaction in the East and West took different forms. The Christians tried to distort the very image of Islam through their propaganda machinery. John of Damascus (675-749) in his book, De Haeresibus considered Islam as heresy. The first Byzantine writer who referred to the Prophet of Islam was Theophanes the Confessor (d. 202/817), attacked Islam as wildly as John. Guilbert de Nogent (d. 518/1124) criticized on the fact that wine and pork were tabooed in Islam. Guillaume de Tripoli's work during 12th and 13th century was based with extreme hate and was most offensive. Raymond Lull (d. 716/1316) studied Arabic and Muslim philosophy in Tunis, and suggested to the then Pope to start a moral crusade against Islam. Marco Polo spoke of the Muslims as the worshippers of Muhammad. Renan wrote that Muhammad invented a new religion to revenge himself on his brethren. Roger Wendover (d. 635/1237) and John Maundeville (d.757/1356) attained mastership in cultivating quite senseless and baseless stories for the Prophet. Saint Eulogius also applied savage language for Islam to its extreme. Diceto followed Sigebert (1030-1112) to describe that the Muslims offered Muhammad the worship of Godhead. Edward Herbert (1583-1648) wrote that Muhammad preached against Pope Boniface's usurpation of the title of Universal Bishop. Pedro de Alfonso wrote that the Prophet attempted to become king under the veil of religion on the model of David and Solomon. Fantastically, du Pont mentioned that the Prophet not only allowed every male to have ten wives, but every woman ten husbands. Thus, in the fabulous writings, a fairly consistent picture of Islam was designed in the western countries. The blind and fictitious literary aggression in Europe, however, continued for a long period without any break. They knew the historical fact less, but propagated more on the basis of fairy tales, which can be gauged from the report of a Latin author, Joinville (1224-1317), who was quite unknown with the relationship of the Prophet with Ali, making the latter as the uncle of the former. Lemons made A'isha as the first wife of the Prophet. Pedro wrote that the Prophet's father Abdullah was known as Habedileth, that is, "slave of the idol Leth." When mentioning the Prophet's name, Hottinger says: "at the mention of whom the mind shudders." Thus, in view of H. Reland, "No religion has been more calumniated than Islam in western literature." Curiously enough, Peter Heylyn wrote in 1621, a geographical treatise, Mikrokosmos, wherein he describes, "Deprived of both his parents when but two years old, Muhammad was left unto the care of an uncle, who not able to give him education, sold him at 16 years of age to the Ismaelites, by whom exposed to sale in the open markets; he was bought by a certain Abdalmutaliffe, a wealthy merchant. On his master's death, Muhammad falls heir to his wealth by marrying his widow."

During the early part of the Middle Age, the Prophet was mostly pronounced in the occidental literature as Bafum, Maphomet, Mammet, Mahound or Mawmet. The western poets, romancers and composers of plays also rendered the terms of Mahoune, Mahown, Mahoun, Mahon, Macon or Maho. The Prophet was also described as Saint Mahoun, Lord Mahown or Sir Mahown. During 12th century, the usage of Mawment ultimately passed to Mahomet, and was also latinized as Machumat, Machomet, Magmed and Moomethes. The negative approach of the westerners can be seen further from their writings, in which the Muslims had been termed with different misnomers, such as Infidels, Miscreants, Paynims, Pagans, Heathens, Heathen hounds, Enemies of God, the Turks, Allophilli, Hagarebes, Ishmaelites, Canes, Moabites, Aliens, Gentiles, etc., and occasionally Goths and Vandals in the poetical works. The most popular term, however, was the Saracens.

The crooked approach towards Islam can be judged from the fantastic prophecies of Sansovino and countless others, limiting the life of Islam to a millennium. According to Flowers of History (Bonn, 1849, 2:515), the astronomers of Toledo record that, "Within seven years from the year of 1229, a doubt will spring up amongst the Saracens, they shall abandon their mosques and embrace Christianity." Emperor Leo of Constantinople predicted that Islam would be destroyed by a light-haired family! In the reign of the Empress Theodora, a prophecy was announced about the end of the Muslims on the whole by the Macendonians.

During the early part of the Middle Ages, when Islam and Christianity were arrayed against each other as opposing camps, and often there was an open war, all sorts of blasphemies were invented further against Islam. Peter the Venerable (1094-1156) had the Koran translated for the first time from Arabic into Latin, whose purpose was to refute Islamic mission. Another Koranic translated brought forth by Robert of Ketton in 1143. It was followed by the translation of Mark of Toledo (1190-1200) under the title, Alcorani Machometi Liber. The same period produced Francis of Assisi (1181-1226) and Raymond Lull (1232-1316), whose writings were absolutely unreliable and untrue. Ranulf Higden (d. 1364) and John Mandeville (1300-1372) repeated once again the legends of 11th and 12th centuries about the Prophet. Further, the Crusades according to Calverley poured out false informations for several centuries to all people of Europe, and the false reports brought back by the Crusaders, filled the west with popular misinformation that western mass education has not yet able to remove.

In spite of the fact that the Renaissance became possible only through profiting by Muslim works on science and philosophy, and their translations thereof for centuries, the attitude of some western people, who were hostile to the very civilization that created these works indicates how deep-rooted the religious, political and racial prejudices were. Europe remained ignorant of Islam for a considerably long time, and when it tried to get it know, it was suffering from strange notions-calumnious as well as whimsical. The writings of John Bale (1495-1563) and Henry Smith (1560-1591) however indicate an unchanged thinking of the westerners about Islam. Between 1572 and 1575, many traditional predictions also poured out in Europe against Islam. An Abyssinian prediction relates that, "Mecca and Medina shall be destroyed soon." The prophecy of the wandering Jews, uttered at Astrakhan in 1676, assigned the year 1700 for the breakdown of the Turks and Islam.

During the later period of the Middle Ages, and the early and later periods of the Modern Age, the original sources almost came to the hands of the European scholars, giving rise to the scholarly and creative spirit in Islamic study, and a humanistic turn began to appear in western thought. With the establishment of the College de France in 1500 at Paris, the oriental language had been included in its curriculum, and Guillaume Postel was the first from this college to compile Arabic grammar in 1560. The French king Henry III (1551-1588) established a chair of Arabic in this college in 1587. Soon afterwards, in 1613, a chair of Arabic was created at the University of Leiden in the Netherlands. In England, a chair was created at Cambridge in 1632 and one in Oxford in 1634. Pope Gregory (d. 1591) also founded a printing press at Rome to publish books in Arabic characters, and the al-Qanun fi't Tibb of Ibn Sina was its first publication. Louis le Dieu also put forth a Persian grammar in 1639 at Holland. Golius (d. 1667), Arpineus, Edward Pecock and Hattinger studied the translated Arabic works, but they mostly referred to the translated Arabic works of those Christian writers who lived in Islamic countries, such as Sa'id bin Bitriq (877-941), the Patriarch of Alexandria; Ibn al-Amind al-Makin (d. 1237), the courtier of the Egyptian kings, and Abul Faraj ibn Ibri Malati (d. 1286), the Christian scholar in Egypt. The period under review, however, was not quite barren in attacking the Islam. The noteworthy work is Pierre Bayle's Mahomet (Rotterdam, 1697), in which he described the Prophet as a "false" and the "arch-enemy of Christianity.!"

It will perhaps be well at this stage to glance at Bibliotheque Orientale produced by Barthelmi D'Herbelot (1620-1695) in that period in France, which is undoubtedly the original forebear of the modern The Encyclopaedia of Islam (1908), whose titles have been compiled by the non-Muslim scholars.

During the later period of the Modern Age, it appears that the western aggressive propaganda had continued, but this period is remarkably noted also for bringing forth few eminent scholars on Islamic studies. H.Roland, the Dutch scholar and Utrecht professor of theology, who in the beginning of the 18th century, frankly and warmly recommended the application of historical justice towards Islam in his short Latin sketch of Islam, entitled H. Relandi de religione Mohammedica libri duo (Utrecht, 1704). He also recommended the Muslim authorities and sources to speak for themselves, and wrote, "Let the Moslems themselves describe their own religion for us; just as the Jewish and Christian religions are falsely represented by the heathens, so every religion is misrepresented by its antagonists. We are mortals, subject to error, especially where religious matters are concerned, we often allow ourselves to be grossly misled by passion." Jacob Ehrhart is famous for publishing a short examination of the charges made against the Prophet and Islam in 1731. The translation of Koran by Edward Sale (1697-1736) came out in 1734, who matched the Prophet in his preface, with Thesee and Pompilius, and praised his mission. Boulainvilliers in Life of the Prophet tried to prove Islam superior to Christianity in rationalism and realism. Savory's Koran appeared in 1783, making the Prophet as "one of the marvellous persons." Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) also admired Islamic mission in his La Religion dans le Limites de la simple raison. Goethe's Mahomet published in 1770, who put high remarks on Islamic mission. Turpin's The Life of Mohammad in 1773 also contained excellent regards to the Prophet.

In the present period of the Modern Age and onward, the diligent research spirit in the European countries freshly came up, and the collection of rare Islamic documents began to be unearthed. The Arabic teaching had been also included in the leading universities, and mass literature on Islam began to pour out to such extent that it became difficult to compile a list of bibliography of the Prophet. D.S. Margoliouth (1858-1940) remarked, "The list of Muhammad's biographers is inexhaustible, but it is a matter of pride to find a place in it." The most famous works published in England were Beamfton Sermons (1800) by Dr. White, Life of Mohammad (1815) by Dr. G.B., Apology for Mohammad (1829) by Godfrey Higgins, Life of Mahomet (1849) by Washington Irving, Life of Mahomet (1861) by William Muir, Mohammad and the Rise of Islam (1905) by Margoliouth, etc. Germany produced Islamism (1830) by Dr. J.A. Muller, Muhammad der Prophet (1845) by Dr. G. Weil, Life of Mahomet (1851) by Dr. Sprenger, History of Mohammad's Campaigns (1856) by Von Kramer, Muhammaden Studies (1890) by Ignaz Goldziher, etc. Among the French publications, the most famous are Islam and Quran (1831) by Garcin de Tassy, History of Arabia (1847) by M. Caussin de Perceval, History of the Founder of Islam (1874) by Julius Charles, Historie de Arabes (1877) by Sedillot, Views on Islam (1894) by Henry de Casteri, etc. Holland also brought forth, Histoire des Musulmanes (1861) by Dozy, Mohammad (1894) by H. Grimme, Das Laben Muhammeds (1905) by F. Buhl, etc.

The most organized research however took place with the foundation of Ecole des Langues Orientales Vivantes in 1795 at Paris. Modern orientalism began with this school, founded by Silvestre de Sacy (1758-1838). The Paris Asiatic Society was founded in 1821, and in 1823 it launched its own periodical, Journal Asiatique. In 1834, there appeared the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. But, it is not until nearly a century after the foundation of the Paris school in 1795 that we see the establishment of the Oriental Studies in German universities, the opening of the Seminar fur Orientalische Spranchen at Berlin in 1887, the introduction of the study of Oriental languages at the Cambridge university and later the founding of the School of Oriental Studies at London in 1906. In Russia, foreign specialists in the University of Kazan in 1804, and next one in 1854 had organized an Oriental department in the University of St. Petersburg. The first International Congress of Orientalists held also in 1873 at Paris. It was subsequently followed in 1874 at London, in 1876 at St. Petersburg, in 1878 at Florence, in 1881 at Berlin, in 1883 at Leiden, in 1886 at Vienna, in 1889 at Stockholm, in 1894 at Geneva, in 1899 at Rome, and in 1902 at Hamburg. In 1916, the School of Oriental Studies was founded in the University of London, which came to be known as School of Oriental and African Studies in 1938. Holland was the first to establish Asiatic Society in 1778. The English founded one in Calcutta on January 15, 1784 with the untiring efforts of Sir William Jones (d. 1794), and another in 1795 at France. In 1839, a regularly produced journal, the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal took place in India of the Asiatick Researches of William Jones's group. In 1841, the Bombay branch issued its own journal. The year 1842 was the founding of the American Oriental Society along with its own periodical. In 1849, the Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft was launched in Leipzig. It was published by the German Oriental Society, which had been formed two years earlier. From 1804, the teaching of oriental languages at university level was extended at Kharkov and, above all, to Kazan in Russia. Thus, the oriental languages like Arabic, Persian and Turkish began to be studied, enabling the scholars to inspect the original source materials. Such was the origin of Orientalism. The term Orientalist occurred in England towards 1779, and Orientaliste in France in 1799. Orientalisme found a place in the Dictionnarie de l' Academie Francaise in 1838.

From the 18th century on, the attitude of western free thinkers took a truly humanistic turn. It evoked a strong reaction in Voltaire, who finds much to commend in the precepts of Islam, and was an admirer of Koran, vide Essai sur les moeurs et l'esprit des nations (Paris, 1858). Turpin's work, The Life of Mohammad described the Prophet as a "great prophet", "powerful mind", "true believer" and the "founder of natural religion." Goethe was captivated by the personality of the Prophet and writes, "I could never see Muhammad as an imposter" (Dichtung und Wahrbeit). The English historian Edward Gibbon (1737-1794) writes in Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire (1848) magnificent pages in defence of the merits of the Prophet. Dieterici, Sedillot, E. Quartermere (1782-1852), Horton, de Boer, Masson Oursel, Goichon, Gardet, Louis Massignon (1883-1962), Rene Guenon, Asin Palacious, E.G. Browne (1862-1926), Julius Wellhausen (1844-1918), Wustenfeld (d. 1899), R.A. Nicholson (1868-1945), Hamilton Gibb (1895-1971) etc. are among those who get rid of their prejudice views, and knew how to take fact seriously through scientific research.

It must be admitted that the events of the life of the Prophet were first reduced to writing almost a hundred years after his death, and therefore, the writers had no written sources to fall back upon except memorized reports and traditions. The oral reports that have been in circulation for over a century, cannot be possibly well knit in structure. The historical fictitious and stories were given no floral touches at that time, and were put into writing, and as a result, the most reliable works are also incorporated with such reports that are too weak and doubtful. In a similar situation, when facts have to be recorded long after their occurrence, people generally pick up all sorts of street-gossip, without caring to quote the names of the reporters. This worthless non-historical collection evidently passed for a piece of interesting historical stuff, and the western literature on Islam during and after 18th century is the outcome of such type of materials. The Muslim reporters did not give their first care to the narrations they had sorted out, and the occidental scholars found these collections from the sources, influencing greatly to their writings.

With the pace of scholarly study in Europe on Islam, it is however learnt the old baseless myths and legends minted almost during 11th and 12th centuries came to be condemned in the light of original materials, resulting the charges on the Prophet to a less number. Bosworth Smith writes in Mohammad and Mohammadanism (New York, 1857, p. 63) that, "We cannot imagine what the Muslims will say on hearing all those stories and songs about Islam in vogue in Europe during the mediaeval ages. All these stories and poems are filled with jealousy and enmity due to the ignorance of the religion of the Muslims." Oswald Carlyle in Heroes and Hero-worship (London, 1928, p. 35) also referred to these false accusations, and condemned that, "This kind of opinion is shame on us."

While examining the western books bank, it appears that the charges yet are being repeated despite several literary efforts of the learned Muslim scholars. Thus, the western writers can be classified safely into three groups: Firstly, those who do not understand Arabic and original sources. Secondly, those who know Arabic, but have no idea of the sources; and thirdly, those who know Arabic and original sources. The scholars therefore, like E.H. Palmer (1840-1882) and D.S. Margoliouth (1858-1940) may be placed in the above third group, and their status may be termed in the words: "I see everything, but understand nothing." Among the accusations, however, there are few which the European scholars have not yet removed, and continued to repeat, i.e., the spread of Islam by force and sword, the plurality of wives by the Prophet, the approval of slavery, the kingship in Medina etc. Among these charges, the charges of the spread of Islam by sword and the plurality of wives are such that have been stuck in the occidental chronicles since 11th and 12th centuries. There are however, many western scholars who do not accept these derogatory charges.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISLAM, IMAGE OF IN WESTERN COUNTRIES -2Encyclopedia Topic

"Another calumny that is persistently levelled at the Prophet is that in his later life he became licentious. That is an enormity that has only to be contemplated to be immediately rejected as utterly incompatible with his life and character. None of the great religious systems has polygamy been forbidden. The Jewish prophets, including the great lawgiver Moses, had a plurality of wives. No one has ever alleged that because of this they could be accounted as leading virtuous lives. Polygamy is not compulsory in Islam. It is permissible under very strict limitations, the principal one being the maintenance of complete equality between wives, as is said: "And if you apprehend that you cannot act equitably towards orphans, then marry such women as seem good to you, two and three and four; but if you fear that you will not do justice (between them), then (marry) only one" (4:3).

Polygamy was a custom general throughout the East, so long as the days of Abraham, and which, it is certain, from innumerable passages in Scripture, some of which we shall quote, could not in those purer ages of mankind, have been regarded as sinful. Polygamy was permitted among the ancient Greeks, as in the case of the detachment of young men from the army, mentioned by Plutarch. It was also defended by Euripides and Plato. The ancient Romans were more severe in their morals, and never practiced it, although it was not forbidden among them; and Marc Antony is mentioned as the first who took the liberty of having two wives. From that time it became pretty frequent in the empire till the reigns of Theodosius, Honorius and Arcadius, who first prohibited it by an express law in 393 A.D. After this the emperor Valentinian permitted, by an edict, all the subjects of the empire, if they pleased, to marry several wives; nor does it appear from the ecclesiastical history of those times, that the bishops made any objection to its introduction. Valentinianus Constantius, son of
(continued..)
Plurality of wives
Constantine the Great, had countless wives. Clotaire, King of France, and Heribartus and Hypericus his sons, had a plurality also. Add to these, Pepin and Charlemagne, of whom St. Urspergensus witnesses that they had several wives, Lothaire and his sons, as likewise Arnolphus VII., Emperor of Germany (888 A.D.), and a descendant of Charlemagne, Frederick Barbarossa and Philip Theodatus the King of France. Among the first race of the Kings of the Franks, Gontran, Caribert, Sigebert and Chilpheric had several wives, at one time. Gontran had within his palace Veneranda and Mercatrude and Ostregilde, acknowledged as his legitimate wives; Caribert had Merflida, Marconesa and Theodogilda. Father Daniel confesses the polygamy of the French Kings. He denies not the three wives of Dagobert I, expressly asserting that Theodobert espoused Dentary, although she had a husband, and himself, another wife, named Visigelde. He adds, that in this he imitated his uncle Clotaire, who espoused the widow of Creodomir, although he had already three wives. After the emergence of the Protestant school of thought, Philip of Hesse and Frederick William II of Prussia, were permitted by the Protestant Church to contract bigamous marriages. In 1650, the Frankish Kreistag at Nuremberg passed a resolution, allowing everybody to marry two wives. The Anabaptists openly preached that a true Christian must have several wives; and the Morgans regard polygamy as a divine institution.

The Arab social fabric was passing through a serious crisis at the advent of Islam. Inter-tribal wars had destroyed a large part of the male population of Arabia. The very large number of women left destitute and likely to resort to prostitution had to be provided for. In the battle of Uhud, about 70 Muslims fell martyrs, rendering half the Muslim women in Medina widows. The surviving males were directed to marry the widows to alleviate their sufferings. Under these circumstances, the Prophet resorted to polygamy. He restrained polygamy by limiting the maximum number of contemporaneous marriages, and by making absolute equity towards all obligatory on the man. It is worthy of note that the clause in the Koran, which contains the permission of contract four contemporaneous marriages, is immediately followed by a sentence, which cuts down the significance of the preceding passage to its normal and legitimate dimensions. The passage runs thus, "You may marry two, three, or four wives, but not more." The subsequent lines declare, "but if you should apprehend that you may not be able to deal justly between your wives, then marry only one" (4:4) Thus, taking into consideration, Islam permitted a limited polygamy, but the aggressive critics try to make out that polygamy is an institution ordained by the Prophet. If we may have a look at the following episodes of the Old Testament, we will find a lavish approval of polygamy:- "There in Jerusalem, David married more wives and had more sons and daughters." (I

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral Islamic concept of HistoryEncyclopedia Topic

According to the Koran, "We tell you stories of the prophets, which will strengthen your heart, and thus bring you the truth, and exhortation and a memorial for the believers" (11:120) and "Say (O'Prophet) travel through the earth to find out surely the consequences of those who denied the truth" (3:42). Of particular significance is the repeated reference to asatir al-awwalin means stories of the ancients, a term occurs nine times in the Koran (6:25, 8:31, 16:24, 23:83, 25:5, 27:68, 46:17, 68:15, 83:13). The word asatir corresponds exactly to Latin historia. The word asatir is derived from satar meaning to write and therefore asatir also means record.

The Arabs do not seem to have a word for history in pre-Islamic period. They had a few stories without any concept of history. They however held the idea of ethnology. The advent of the Greek literature in Arabian territories also made no impact in the field of history. The Arabs developed a sense of history as a result of the Prophet's mission.

The two technical terms by which the concept of history is commonly denoted in Arabic are al-akhbar and al-tarikh. The word akhbar (pl. of khabar) means informations, while the word tarikh means date or era. The Islamic calendar began under caliph Umar, and the word tarikh also introduced from 643 A.D. Later, the word tarikh acquired the meaning of historical work and afterwards that of history. The Arabs produced many important historians, who had sense of history and defined it in following words: - "History refers to events that are peculiar to a particular age or race" (Ibn Khaldun). "History gives information about what once took place in the world" (Makrizi). "History is a science of learning which investigates time-sections and circumstances prevailing in them." (al-Kafiyaj). "History is a science which involves the knowledge of the condition of the ancients" (al-Marasi).

The Rasail Ikhwan as-Safa for the first time classified the sciences including history. It figures among the practical science, which comprises (a) reading and writing (b) lexicography and grammar (c) commercial counting (d) poetry and prosody (e) kinds of divination (f) magic and alchemy (g) profession and crafts (h) commerce, agriculture and animal husbandry (i) biography and history (ilm as-siyar wal akhbar).

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISLAMIC ERAEncyclopedia Topic

The word calendar is derived from Latin kalendae means first day of the month. It stands for dating system in the world. From ancient time man used time reckoning system based upon the movement of the sun and the moon. The altering phrases of moon provide good ground for a month. The 12 lunations completed a year of about 354 days. This is called lunar year. The earth completes a revolution in its orbit around the sun in 365.25 days. The period is called solar year and is divided into 12 months. The solar year is of fixed nature and computable with climate seasons around the world. The difference between solar and lunar year is about 11 days. Subsequently lunar year slides back 11 days per year and completes a round of passing through climatic season in 33 years.

Judaism, Christianity and Islam were prescribed with lunar calendar. The Christian calendar later was changed to solar. The present Christian calendar is based on Roman calendar, which was lunar in the beginning, covering 10 months of 304 days starting from March. Later, Numa (716-673 B.C.), the emperor of Rome added 2 months of January and February with a year comprising 355 days. By 46 B.C., the Roman Caesar started a new calendar, known as the Julian Calendar.

The Islamic calendar based on lunar cycle started from Friday, the Muharram 1, A.H., corresponding to July 16, 622 of the Julian Calendar. The Prophet's departure from Mecca is known as the hijra, the Arabic word for Migration. The era of the hijra is deemed, however, to have begun not on the precise day when he left Mecca, but on the first day of the Islamic year in which he reached in Kuba. This occurred almost two months earlier, on July 16th. Thus, 16 July 622 A.D. (A.D. = Anno Domini, the year of the Lord) coincides with 1 Muharram 1 A.H. (A.H. = Anno Hijrae, the year of the Hijra).

If one has a date in the Christian Calendar and intends to know the rough equivalent in the Islamic or Hijri Calendar, he must simply subtract 622. His answer will be only a rought approximation because the Muslim year is eleven days shorter than a solar year and there are consequently 33 Muslim years to every 32 years in the Christian calendar. To convert dates more accurately, it is therefore necessary to use the following formulae:

AH = AD - 622 + AD - 622
AD = AH + 622 - H

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISLAMIC RESEARCH ASSOCIATION, BOMBAYEncyclopedia Topic

The Islamic Research Association came into being on February 1, 1933 in Bombay. Its founder President was Ali Muhammad R. Macklai (1894-1971) with Asaf A.A. Fyzee (1899-1981), the Principal of Bombay Law College, as the Secretary. Its founder members were Jogesharini Ismail, M.B. Rahman, Dr. U.M. Daudpota, Saif F.B. Tayyib and W. Ivanow (1886-1970). Lui Messignon (Paris), D.H. Margoliuth (Oxford), R.A. Nicholson (Cambridge), K.S. Zotarstin (Apsila), A.Fisher (Lipzig), H.A.R. Gibb (London) and O.J. Vensik (Leiden) had accepted to become the fellows of the Associations. At the end of 1933, the Association composed of seven fellows, three life members and eight members. In 1933, Imam Sultan Muhammad Shah became its patron and Sir Ross Masud, the vice-chancellor of Aligadh University became its Vice-Patron. Its first publication was the Diwan of Khaki Khorasani by W. Ivanow in 1933. W. Ivanow (1886-1970), a distinguished Russian scholar in Ismaili studies, who had left Russia soon after the October Revolution and spent next forty years in India, and played prominent role in the foundation and promotion of this research institution with his colleagues in the executive committee. The span of the Islamic Research Association, Bombay was about 13 years. It was dissolved in place of the Ismaili Society in 1946.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISLAMUDDIN, SEYYED.Name

(14/15.C) One of 19 sons of P. Hassan Kabirdin. Is buried in Lahore.

(14/15e S.) Un des 19 enfants de Pir HK. Enterré à Lahore.

Heritage Dictionary of ismailism, entry #266general ISMNoun

Verbe, Nom, Ordre Divin. Ism-è Azam = Le Grand Nom, Nom absolu de la Divinité, BOL* transcende les attributs, NYAZ*, NOOR*.

Heritage Dictionary of Ismailism, entry #55general ISM-I AZAMEncyclopedia Topic

The word ism (pl. asma) is derived from wasim meaning dyeing or spotting. Another view suggests that its root is samu meaning elevation or prominence. The Koran says, “And He gave Adam the knowledge of asma” (2:31). In the New Testament, the Opening sentence of St. John reads: “In the beginning was the “word” and the “word” was with God, and the “word” was God.” Paul Brunton writes that, “The “word” represents the very first motion of the Creative Power. The term, “God” does not here stand for the Absolute, the Great Void, which is the Ultimate of all things, but for the individualized Creator of a Universe.” Seyyed Hossein Nasr writes in Ideals and Realities of Islam (London, 1966, p. 142) that, “The Divine Word therefore performs two functions: it creates and it transmits the Truth. The world was created by the word and all revelation comes from the word or Logos. It is also through the word and the power of speech that man returns to God.”

Ali bin Muhammad relates that Imam Jafar Sadik said, “Verily, God, the Hallowed, the Exalted created a name not sounded by letter, nor expressed by word, nor manifested by body, nor indicated by similitude, nor emblazoned by colours” (al-Kafi, 1:280). Ali bin Ibrahim narrates Imam Jafar Sadik as saying, “Whoever has worshiped the meaning apart from the name, he, in reality, has worshipped the One God” (al-Kafi, 1:287).

The Great Name (ism-i azam) is a divine word – a vehicle of communication between God and man. It is a Supreme Name, the Unique Name (al-ism al-mufrad), the Name of Majesty (ism al-jalala).

Thus, ism-i azam means to give high prominence to a particular aspect of Divine Being. With its symbolic two syllables and four letters, this Name concentrates all the redemptive efficacy of the Divine Word. “God is present in His Name” say the Sufis. To the degree that, through the conjunction of this Presence and a serious concentration on the part of the invoker, he finds himself effaced, absorbed in the One invoked; the zikr becomes God’s zikr alone, in which the invocation, the invoked and the invoker are one with the One without second. Given its incomparable grandeur, the invocation of the Supreme Name can only be practical under certain conditions, with the authorization of the Imam. It may be mentioned that the very utterance of God’s Name has a tremendous purifying and elevating effect.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISMANoun

Impeccabilité et infaillibilité. Exempt de péchés et d'erreurs. Se rapporte â l'Imam*.

Heritage Dictionary of Ismailism, entry #56general ISMAIL BIN JAFAR SADIK (148-158/765-775), 6TH IMAMEncyclopedia Topic

"Abu Muhammad Ismail, surnamed al-Wafi was born in Medina between 100/719 and 103/722. Imam Ismail is also known as an absolute Lord (az-azbab-i itlaq). He was born by the first wife of Imam Jafar Sadik, named Fatima bint al-Hussain al-Athram bin al-Hasan bin Ali. Shahrastani (1076-1153) writes in Kitab al-milal wa'l nihal that during the lifetime of Fatima, Imam Jafar Sadik never got another marriage like Muhammad with Khadija and Ali with Fatima. Hatim bin Imran bin Zuhra (d. 498/1104) writes in al-Usul wa'l Ahakam that, "Ismail was the most perfect, the most learned and the most excellent of the sons of Jafar as-Sadik."

The early life of Imam Ismail is obscure except few fragmented records. Asraru'n-Nutaqa writes, "When Ismail completed 7 years of age, the Lord of religion (Jafar Sadik) declared him the master of religion and his heir-apparent, as his next in descent. He guarded him from his other sons, kept him away from the contact with the public, and his education went on under his own supervision." According to Marifat Akhbari'r-Rijal (comp. after 280/890) that in the absence of his father from Medina, Ismail acted on behalf of his father as the head of family. It is also related in Uyun'l-Akhbar (comp. 842/1438) that Mualli bin Khunyas, a wealthy Iranian and a famous narrator was killed and his property was confiscated by the order of the Abbasid governor of Medina, Daud bin Ali. Masudi (d. 346/958) also asserts in his Kitab al-Tanbih wal Ishraf (Leiden, 1894, p. 329) that Daud bin Ali had killed many persons by order of Abul Abbas, the first Abbasid caliph and the number of victims was about eighty persons. While in the matter of Mualli bin Khunyas, however, Imam Jafar Sadik was absent from Medina, therefore, Imam Ismail solved the dispute in 133/751.

Riyah bin Uthman al-Murri, the Abbasid governor in Medina burnt the house of Ahl al-Bayt, and Imam Ismail was decided to be killed. Ahmad bin Ali Najashi (d. 450/1058) writes in his Kitab al-Rijal (Bombay, 1917, pp. 81-2) that once caliph Mansur summoned Imam Jafar Sadik and his son Ismail to Iraq, where he found no chance to kill them, and thus their lives were spared, but Bassam bin Abdullah al-Sayrafi was executed instead. Muhammad Hussain al-Muzzafari quotes Imam Jafar Sadik as saying in his al-Sadik (2:119) that, "Ismail was planned two times for killing, but I prayed for his life, and God protected him."

The succession issue of Imam Jafar Sadik has become a mystery in the extant sources. We are faced with fact as with legend and myth, conjecture, hypothesis and prejudice of the historians. Committed in the heat of strife by the Shi'ite authors, they were continuously repeated by those who followed them. And finally, all this was inherited by the orientalists, who, after relying too much on these crumbs, endorsed many of these errors.

Imam Ismail was declared many times by his father as his successor. According to Asraru'n-Nutaqa (comp. 380/990), Imam Jafar Sadik said, "He is the Imam after me, and what you learn from him is just the same as if you have learnt it from me." It is also related that when the health of Imam Jafar Sadik became impaired, he summoned the most trusted amongst his followers, and those members of his family who were alive, and did what his predecessors had done, i.e., he handed over the authority of Imamate to Ismail. The most trusted followers of Imam Jafar Sadik supported Imam Ismail, notably Abu Hamza Thabit bin Abu Sufiya Dinar as-Samali (d. 150/767).

W. Ivanow (1886-1970) writes in Ismailis and Qarmatians (JBBRAS, Bombay, 1940, p. 57) that, "According to the overwhelming majority of the available sources, both sectarian and of their opponents, Imam Jafar appointed as his successor his eldest son Ismail, by his first wife, a highly aristocratic lady, great grand-daughter of Hasan." W. Montgomery Watt writes in The Formative Period of Islamic Thought (Edinburgh, 1973, p. 271) that, "The Ismailites derive their name from the fact that they consider that the Imam after Jafar as-Sadik was his son Ismail and not Musa al-Kazim."

The historians refer to the tradition that Imam Ismail had died during his father's lifetime, but the followers of Imam Ismail refused to believe this rumour. Shahrastani (1076-1153) writes in Kitab al-milal wa'l nihal (London, 1984, p. 144) that, "Some of them (followers of Ismail) say that he did not die, but that his father had declared that he had died to save him from the Abbasid caliphs; and that he had held a funeral assembly to which Mansur's governor in Medina was made a witness."

During the rule of the first Abbasid caliph, Abdullah as-Saffah, the Alids in Medina kept quiet and affairs remained stationary. But when Mansur assumed the power in 136/753, the Alids embittered by the usurpation of their rights. Thus, an-Nafs az-Zakia, the son of Abdullah al-Mahd refused to take the oath of allegiance to Mansur. It was the month of Ramzan, 145/December, 762 when the Abbasid commander Isa bin Musa spurred his horses towards Medina to crush the uprising of an-Nafs az-Zakia. It was very critical moment, and many families evacuated the city. On this juncture, Imam Ismail also managed to leave Medina secretly with the outgoing caravans. Tabari (3:226) and Baladhuri (d. 279/892) in Ansab al-Ashraf (5:617) write that, "On 12th Ramzan, 145 (December 4, 762), Isa bin Musa camped at al-Jurf, where he entered into correspondence with many notables of Medina, including some Alids. Many of them left the city with their families and some even joined Isa, a move which created a sense of insecurity and led to a large scale evacuation of Medina." When the veritable fighting took place with the Abbasids, an-Nafs az-Zakia was left with only a small number of his followers. Tabari (3:249) writes that, "His followers took to flight, and he himself was killed on the 14th Ramzan, 145 (December 6, 762)." His brother, Ibrahim, wandering from Medina to Aden, Syria, Mosul, Anbar until he finally settled in Basra in 145/762 to propagate for his brother. He also rebelled two months after his brother's revolt, and seized control of Basra.

Tradition has it that Imam Ismail went to Basra after leaving Medina, but it seems improbable as after the defeat of an-Nafs az-Zakia in Medina in 145/762, his brother Ibrahim mustered a large army in Basra, hatching a massive revolt against the Abbasids, therefore, Imam Ismail must have hidden himself elsewhere in Arabia, and when the condition had become congenial, he would have harboured himself in Basra. Ibrahim left Basra for Kufa after some time, but was killed in a battle at Bakhamri, about halfway between Wasit and Kufa.

The critical examination of the sources suggests that the Abbasids had added a twist to this puzzle after few years with the help of the predeceased tradition for Imam Ismail, broadcasting everywhere that Imam Jafar Sadik had changed the nass (investiture) in favour of his other son, Musa Kazim. This newly contrived theory took its early nourishment among the people who lacked the concept of the Imamate. The later sources, trusting on it, however endorse three different reasons for the change of nass i.e., Imam Ismail's indulgence in drink in 138/755, his intriguing in the extremists circles in 143/760, and his death during his father's life time in 145/762. It deserves to note that some bombastic stories of Imam Ismail's indulgence in drink and his alleged association with the extremists have been condemned by many historians. Mufazal bin Umar as-Sayrafi however relates that Imam Jafar Sadik, in view of his son's piety had already warned the people in Medina that, "Do not wrong Ismail" (la tajafu Ismaila).

Caliph Mansur had not yet exhausted in his plan, for he had another card to play, and there is a reason to suppose that the story of change of nass had been concocted in the Zaidite orbits. It was rolled in public most probably after the death of Imam Jafar Sadik in 148/765, otherwise the Imam himself would have refuted it. It aimed to force Imam Ismail to expose to repudiate the claim of Musa Kazim. But, as we have heretofore seen that Imam Ismail had tenaciously determined not to expose as it was a diplomacy of the Abbasids to arrest him. Consequently, the predeceased tradition took its root. Imam Ismail's exposition would have also given free rope to the Abbasids to upbraid Imam Jafar Sadik, who is said to have produced a document to caliph Mansur, bearing signature of the persons, testifying the alleged death of his son.

The Abbasids had gained power on the slogans of the Alids. Later, it took a political shape to the right of caliphate in the house of Abbas on religious ground. Abbas as-Saffah was to be succeeded by his son like the Imamate's doctrine in the house of Ali bin Abu Talib from father to son. Conversely, Abbas as-Saffah was succeeded by his brother, Mansur. He determined to have a same effect that a brother could succeed by a brother. Thus, the Abbasids seems to have put into circulation a tradition of change of nass in the house of Imam Jafar Sadik by putting forth the claim of Musa Kazim. Thus, the Abbasids gained more than one benefit. Many Shi'ite followers, who had acquired the knowledge of the doctrines of Imamate from Imam Muhammad Bakir and Imam Jafar Sadik, however, ruled out the theory of change of nass.

Imam Jafar Sadik is also reported to have said: Inlillah fi kullo shain bida illah imamah means, "Verily, God makes changes in everything except in the matter of Imam." It tends to prove that once Ismail had been designated as an Imam, the spiritual authority of Imam Jafar Sadik came to the hands of his successor, and the status of Imam Jafar Sadik becomes same as he was before acquiring spiritual authority from his father. This point merits further indication that Imam Jafar Sadik had no power to cancel, revoke or alter the first nass in favour of Imam Ismail, and therefore, the tradition of change of nass carries no historicity. The European scholar Marshall Hodgson writes in The Order of the Assassins (Netherland, 1955, p. 63) that, "Such a withdrawal (of nass) evidently was not historical." Nawbakhti (d. 310/912) writes in Kitab Firaq al-Shi'a that, "Yet another version is that by appointing his son, Ismail, as an Imam, Jafar Sadik thus resigned. Ismail was therefore a real Imam, and after him, the Imamate has to pass to his son, Muhammad." Shahrastani (1076-1153) also writes in Kitab al-milal wa'l-nihal (p. 144) that, "Designation (nass), however, cannot be withdrawn, and has the advantage that the Imamate remains in the descendants of the person designated, to the exclusion of others. Therefore, the Imam after Ismail is Muhammad bin Ismail."

The Abbasids brought Musa Kazim to lodge claim for his right on one side, and made an intensified search of Imam Ismail on other, indicating to understand that Imam Ismail was a legitimate Imam in the eyes of the Abbasids. W. Ivanow writes in Ismailis and Qarmatians (JBBRAS, Bombay, 1940, p. 58) that, "Musa apparently was recognized by the secular authorities as the legitimate successor of Imam Jafar in his position, so far as it was concerned with the outer world." W. Montgomery Watt also writes that the political moderates had preferred Musa Kazim, vide The Formative Period of Islamic Thought (Edinburgh, 1973, p. 271). The Abbasids mustered a large following for Musa Kazim in Medina, and the snares of spies were also planted to watch signs of disloyalty emanating from him. The Abbasids then intended to gather the scattered Shi'ites at Medina under the leadership of Musa Kazim, and strike a final blow upon them to get an end of the concept of the Imamate.

Abul Khattab (d. 167/783) was an eminent disciple of Imam Jafar Sadik. He was first to have preached the Shi'ite doctrines tinctured with esoteric interpretation. For quite some time, he was closely associated with Imam Jafar Sadik, who had commissioned him as his chief da'i in Kufa. When Imam Ismail had been in Iraq, he adopted the title of Abul Khattab most probably after 151/769 for exercising taqiya. Nawbakhti in Kitab Firaq al-Shi'a (Istanbul, 1931, pp. 60-61) and al-Qummi (d. 300/912) in Kitab al-Maqalat wa'l-Firaq (Tehran, 1963, p. 83) write that the followers of Abul Khattab (i.e., Ismail) became known as Khattabiyya, believing that "the divine light had transferred from Jafar Sadik into Abul Khattab, and on the death of the latter, it passed into Muhammad bin Ismail." The term Abul Khattab here was the epithet of Imam Ismail. Abul Khattab however was killed most possibly in 167/783.

Besides, Imam Ismail had to assume the pseudonym of al-Mubarak in certain cases to protect his life. Al-Mubarak was a servant of Imam Ismail in Medina. In all probability, al-Mubarak was also the epithet of Imam Ismail. More evidences of the application of the name al-Mubarak to Ismail have now come to light, lending strong support to W. Ivanow's hypothesis, vide The Alleged Founder of Ismailism (Bombay, 1946, pp. 108-112), describing that, "I have happened upon such clear and unequivocal testimony concerning al-Mubarak. The fact that it was in reality the surname of Ismail b. Jafar is revealed in at least four different passages in the early Ismaili esoteric work, Sullamu'n-Najjat by Abu Yaqub as-Sijistani" (p. 111). It can be also ascertained from another work of Abu Yaqub as-Sijistani, entitled Ithbat al-Nubuwwat (Beirut, 1966, p. 190).

Hence, another small following of Imam Ismail became known as Mubarakiyya. The Fatimid Imam al-Mahdi had sent a letter in Yamen after 308/921, which is reproduced by Jafar bin Mansur al-Yamen in al-Fara'id wa Hudud ad-Din (pp. 13-19), in which the Imam has also disclosed that the Imams descending from Imam Jafar Sadik wished to resuscitate the true dawat, and feared the treachery of hypocrites, therefore, they assumed names other than their own, and used for themselves esoterically names denoting the rank of proofs (hujjats) and styled themselves as Mubarak, Maymun and Sa'id because of the good omen in these names.

The terms Mubarakiyya and Khattabiyya therefore, were the original names of the nascent Ismailism, as well as the regional identifications of the followers of Imam Ismail, who, on the whole, merged into the main fold of Ismailism in the time of Imam Muhammad bin Ismail. Concluding his judgment, al-Mutawakkil (532-566/1137-1170) writes in his Kitab Haqa'iq al-Marifa as quoted by Bernard Lewis in The Origins of Ismailism (London, 1940, p. 35) that, "The Ismailiyya are the Mubarakiyya and the Khattabiyya."

Imam Ismail mostly lived in Salamia, and then moved to Damascus. Mansur knew his whereabouts, and wrote to his governor to arrest him, but the Imam quitted Damascus for Basra. Imam Ismail's presence in Basra was marked in 151/769. According to Tarikh-i Jhangusha, "A paralytic begged alms of him. Ismail took him by the hand and he was healed; and rising to his feet he departed in his company. Ismail also prayed for a blind person and he recovered his sight."

Imam Jafar Sadik had realized the significance of a tight, well-knit and secret organization to face the emerging challenges in Arab society. For that purpose, he employed his Iranian client (mawla), named Maymun al-Qaddah, who had a skill for organizing the vast network of an underground mission. The Arabs, it must be noted, were not traditionally and temperamentally suited for secretive and underground functioning. They had always lived in an open and free society in the desert without the paraphernalia of state and political intrigues.

De Lacy O'Leary writes in Short History of the Fatimid Khilafat (London, 1923, p. 25) that, "The Ismailians alone have inherited the accurate knowledge of secret mysteries bequeathed by Jafar as-Sadik to his son Ismail." W. Ivanow writes in Ismailis and Qarmatians (JBBRAS, Bombay, 1940, p. 59) that, "The successors of Ismail were therefore compelled to pay more attention to the other aspect of Imam Jafar's heritage - the philosophical and esoteric theories, which were more in demand here. This probably defined the further course of the evolution of Ismailism, which though it never gave up its strictly Islamic substance, had, nevertheless, to reconcile it with the philosophy of the time."

Imam Ismail died in Salamia after bequeathing the office of Imamate to his son Muhammad. According to al-Usul wa'l Ahakam by Hatim bin Imran bin Zuhra (d. 498/1104) that, "Ismail had sent his da'is to all parts and ordered him (Muhammad) to administer the oath in his name according to the custom of all preceding Imams. When his death drew near, he appointed as his heir, his son Muhammad who showed great perfection."

The predeceased tradition assigns Imam Ismail's death in 145/762, but Dustur al-Munajjimin (comp. 450/1056) places it in 152/769. According to the Ismaili tradition, Imam Ismail died in 158/775, and was interred in Salamia. Besides Muhammad, he had a son called Ali, who was born in 130/748 and a daughter, Fatima.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISMAIL GANGJIName

sv.Gangji

V. Gangji

Heritage Dictionary of ismailism, entry #267general Ismaili Encyclopedia Topic

The word tariqah (pl. turuq, tara’iq) is derived from tariq meaning a space between two rows of palm-trees. It is thus simply meant the way, path or road, as it is said in Arabic qatah atariq means he interpreted the road, and howalla tariqatah means he is following his own way. Salmon suggests in his Arabic Dictionary (p, 499) the derivation of tariqah from taraqa meaning a string of camels following a difficult tract to a well.” The word tariq occurs nine times in the Koran. The tariqah is not only internal perception of the hidden meaning of the law, it also purports to be a total discipline aimed towards the progressive purification of the soul.

Rashid Ahmad writes in Islam and Current Issues (Lahore, 1990, p. 92) that, “However, prayers, deteriorated into the performance of some mechanical actions, do not provide warmth to the human heart. The theologians turned the shariah into formalistic ritualism. Soon a powerful group of God-intoxicated Sufis (mystics) revolted against the dry discussions of the theologians. They declared that the shariah of the doctors of the law is the beginning not the end. The Sufis introduced a new term tariqah, which denotes the way leading to union with the Truth. They claimed that the tariqah alone helps man to overcome his inner disease. By purifying his soul the believer can attain a stage where he enjoys the divine bliss. In fact, the main concern of the Sufis was the inner life of man. The new term became so popular that the distinguished divines started using it for spiritual attainment and the shariah became a system concerned with appearance alone”

If the Shariah is obligatory for all people without exception, the spiritual path, the tariqah does not make the same claim. That is to say it is only for those who are predisposed and called to set out on the great adventure, which is the quest for the Divine. The route of tariqah or its following is more difficult than other path. It is an esoteric and spiritual tariqah of Islam. Cap. W.B.S. Rabbani writes in Islamic Sufism (Lahore, 1984, p. 76) that, “Islam is made up of two aspects, the outer and the inner. The outer aspect is called Shariat and the inner Tariqat” Prof. Masudul Hasan also writes in History of Islam (Lahore, 1987, 1:615) that, “There are two aspects of Islam, the outward and the inward. In the outward aspect of Islam, the emphasis is on the observance of law, in the inward aspect the emphasis is on seeking the Truth.” Martin Lings is much explicit, writing: “The Quran is the book of the whole community, yet at the same time, and above all, it is the book of a minority, the book of a spiritual elect. It achieves this double aspect in different ways. Firstly, it is full of “open” verses which every believer can and indeed must apply to himself or herself, but which may none the less be said to apply pre-eminently to the Sufis” (What is Sufism, London, 1981, p. 27). Muhsin Fayd Kashani (d. 1680) writes in al-Safi fi tafsir kalam Allah al-wafi (1:31-32) that, “If someone claims that the Koran has only an exterior meaning, he speaks strictly from self and errs grievously.”

The adherents of Islamic Shariah are known as ashab-i zahiri and the followers of the Tariqah are known as ashab-i ilm-i batin. Kul Husayan writes, “The Shariah is in the tongue, the Tariqah in the soul” (cf. Bektashi Sairleri, Istanbul, 1930, p. 249). Mir Valiuddin also writes in The Quranic Sufism (Delhi, 1959, pp. 14-15), “The science of Shariat is ‘book of knowledge’ (ilm-i safina), but the science of Tariqat is ‘heart knowledge’ (ilm-i sina).” It implies that Shariah and Tariqah mean zahir and batin. The Koran (3:163) says: “Indeed, God conferred a benefit upon the believers when He raised among them an Apostle from among themselves, reciting to them His communication and purifying them and teaching them the Book (kitab) and the Wisdom (hikmah).” Commenting on this verse, M.M. Zuhuru’d-din Ahmad writes in Mystic Tendencies in Islam (Karachi, 1981, p. 82) that, “The Sufi says that the term kitab (book) and hikmah (wisdom) in this context mean Shariah and Tariqah respectively. They say that the mission of the Prophet was two-fold, one to teach the knowledge of the Book which they call Shariah or ilmu’z zahir and the second to teach Hikmah or Tariqat, which is called ilmu’l batin. To teach the first kind of knowledge had been the mission of every prophet, but to teach Hikmah along with it was the special mission of the Prophet of Islam. The second kind of teaching, the Sufis say, he could not impart openly, since every man could not easily grasp its intricate and knotty problems. This esoteric teaching, therefore, he secretly conveyed to his more advanced followers.” The theory of two-fold mission (zahir (exoteric) and batin (esoteric) of the Prophet is also mentioned in the Koran: “He has made complete for you His favours outwardly and inwardly” (31:20).

The Prophet exhorted Shariah openly, but its esoteric aspects imparted secretly to few advanced believers. Hudhayfa ibn al-Yamen in particular enjoyed such privilege; thus he became known as sahib al-sirr or sahib al-sirr al-nabi means the possessor of the Prophet’s secret (Bukhari, istidhan no. 38). One day, says Abdullah bin Jafar, the Prophet made me sit behind him on his mount and secretly whisphered to me (fa-asarra ilayya) a hadith that I would never tell anyone (al-Muslim, 5:165). Once the Prophet is reported to have conversed with Ali bin Abu Talib for a very long time on the day of battle of Taif. Quoting this tradition, Fariduddin Attar writes in his Mathnawi Jawharu’dh-Dhat, a:135) that it was an esoteric conversation between them.

Some people argue that the Prophet exhorted everything and did not conceal anything by quoting the tradition: “It is sinful to say that I have concealed anything revealed to me” (Tirmizi, 9:11 and Masnad, 6:241). The actual meaning of this tradition is that the laws of Shariah and Divine guidance revealed to the Prophet were delivered to the Muslims without concealing anything, but the inner aspects contained in the revealed laws and guidance were interpreted secretly to few trusted believers. The thing which was revealed referred to the zahiri (exoteric) aspect, and the thing which was not revealed, but was the product of the interpretation (tawil) of zahiri aspect was the Sufi tariqah, for which the Prophet said, “If you know what I knew, you would laugh little and weep much” (cf. Mystical Dimension of Islam, 1975, 0. 31). Once Ali bin Abu Talib said, “I have such a knowledge in my mind that if I divulge it, you would tremble like a long rope that is let down in a deep well” (cf. The Secret of Anal Haq, Lahore, 1965, p.125). Sharani writes in Yawaqit wal Jawahir (Cairo, 1306 A.H., p. 20) that Imam Zayn al-Abidin said: “There is much mystic knowledge, which if I disclose, it will be said, ‘you are one of those who worship the idols.’ And the Muslims would deem it lawful to shed my blood and they will consider evil what previously they thought be good.” Ibn Arabi writes in Futuhat al-Makki (1:32) that Ibn Abbas narrates, “If I interpret the Koranic verse ‘Do you not see how God created the seven heavens alike’ (71:15), you will stone me to death.” Abu Talib Makki also writes in Qut al-Qulub (Cairo, 1932, 2:26) on the authority of Bukhari that Abu Huraira relates: “I acquired two kinds of knowledge from the Prophet. I disclosed the one, and if I may disclose the second one, my neck will be cut off.” The esoteric teachings were not common but confined to some advanced believers. “Indeed, an intense, passionate spirituality is evident in the life of the Prophet and certain of his Companions and is part of the message of the Quran” (Encyclopaedia of Religion, London, 1987, 14:342).

There were almost 175 Sufi tariqah, and among them the Shi’ite branch of Ismailis is a significant tariqah. Every Ismaili is a Sufi, but every Sufi is not an Ismaili. The Ismailis advocate inner meaning of Koran and hadith. They are the adherents of interpretation (ahl al-tawil).

Ismaili – a Batini tariqah
The word batin is derived from batan means hidden, concealed, covert, inward, inner or esoteric. Ibn Taymiyya quotes Hasan Basari as related that, “Verily, each Koranic verse has an outer meaning and the inner meaning” (Majmu Fatwa, Riyad, 1382 AH, 13:231). Abu Na’im related from Ibn Masud in his Kitab al-Huliya as quoted by Suyuti in al-Itaqan that, “The Koran indeed revealed in seven words, and there is not a single word which does not possess its outer and inner meanings. No doubt, Ali bin Abu Talib completely commanded the knowledge of both outer and inner meanings.” Yusuf al-Bahrani (d. 1772) quotes the Prophet as saying in Kitab al-Burhan fi tafsir al-Koran (1:17) that, “Among you is one who will fight for the tawil of the Koran as I have fought for its tanzil. That one is Ali bin Abu Talib.” In another tradition, the Prophet said, “I am the Lord of revelation (sahib al-tanzil) and Ali is the Lord of interpretation (shib al-tawil).” J.K. Birge writes in The Bektashi Order of Dervishes (London, 1937, p. 106) that, “This is understood to mean that Muhammad taught the external facts about what Muslims should believe and what they should do, but it is only through Ali that one can enter into an understanding of their deeper meaning.” Abdullah bin Masud said, “The Koran was revealed in seven letters. There is not a single letter but it has an exterior and an interior meaning and with Ali is the knowledge of these.” (Kitab al-Burhan fi tafsir al-Koran (1:21). The Ismailis are also called the Batiniyya (esotericists or interiorists) because of professing the inner aspects of Islam, and as such the Ismailism is the batini tariqah.

Ismaili – a Sufi tariqah
The word sufi is derived from safa means purity, because the foremost need in Sufism is to purify the heart. The Ismaili da’is during the 8th century formed a fraternal organization in Basra, known as Ikhwan as-Safa (Brethren Purity) due to advocating Sufic tariqah. Another view suggests that the Sufis are in the first rank (saff’i awwal); others say that the Sufis claim to belong to the ashab’i suffa (the Companions of the Prophet). Some assert its derivation from suf (wool) because of wearing woolen garment (jama’i suf). The phrase labisa’l suf means he clad himself in wool occurred frequently in early Islamic literature. When the ascetism passed into mysticism, the above words generally reduced to mean he became a sufi. Fariduddin Attar writes in Mantiq-ut-Tahir (London, 1924, p. 8) that, “The doctrines of the Sufi is ancient in Islam, and is much spread, especially among the partisans of Ali.” The Ismaili batini tariqah is the Sufi tariqah. Sufism is a form of tasawwuf in Islam. It is the code of heart (fiqh’l batin), the purification of the soul (tazkiyat’l nafs) or the feeling of God’s presence (al-ihsan).

Ismaili – a Darwishi tariqah
The Persian word darwish is from the Pahlavi driyosh is most likely derived from darviza meaning poverty. According to another view, the word darwish is composed o two syllables, dar (in) and vish (thought) means in thought. The ultimate goal of the Sufi tariqah of darwish is self-realization, and for remaining in such state (in thought), they are also called darwish. The Sufis mostly in Turkey and Persia adopted the term darwish for them, thus there is no difference between them. Spencer Trimingham writes in The Sufi Orders in Islam (London, 1971, p. 264) that, “Of course, one is darwish and a Sufi at the same time and there is no essential distinction in theory. The Sufi is a darwish and the darwish is a Sufi since neither can be in isolation from the other.” The Ismaili tariqah is thus the darwishi tariqah in Islam.

Ismaili – a Faqiri tariqah
The Sufis in Damascus and some Arabian lands also became known as the faqir. The word faqir (pl. fuqara) is derived from faqar means poverty. The term serves to designate the Muslim mystic. The Koran says, “O men, you are the poor (al-fuqara) before God; He is the Rich” (35:15). It affirms the infinity of divine plentitude and, in the light of this richness, the state of man’s dependence and his utter indigence. The Prophet also said, “Poverty (faqiri) is my pride (fakhri).” Abu Sa’id Fazalullah bin Muhammad al-Mayhani said, “al-faqr huwa’l-ghina billah means the faqiri is a wealth in God (cf. Kash al-Mahjub, London, 1911, p. 22). One of the Sufis defines the term faqir that, “The faqir is not be whose hand is empty of provisions, but he whose nature is empty of desires” (Ibid. p. 25). In sum, the tariqah of the faqir is the tariqah of the Sufis and darwish. “Hence, the term darwish referring to a person who possesses this “poverty” is the same as the Arabic term faqir used in Sufism for Muhammadan poverty” (The Encyclopaedia of Religion, 4:240).

It is therefore evident that the Shi’ite Ismaili is a Batini tariqah, the Sufis tariqah, the Darwishi tariqah or the Faqiri tariqah in Islam. It is an intellectual tariqah. The cornerstone of the Ismaili tariqah is the concept of the Imamate. The Imam is a Spiritual Guide and exhorts his followers the interpretation in accordance with the time for their worldly and spiritual progress. It must be noted that Ismaili tariqah is not a random offshoot of Islam, nor is it a hotchpotch of other faiths. Ismaili tariqah is the kernel of Islam that the Prophet himself very carefully separated from the common injunctions of the Shariah. This kernel was kept reserved for the privileged few, and kept on the other hand the Shariah for the mass of ummah. There is much more in Islam than performing salat and saum.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISMAILI BANDEncyclopedia Topic

The word band is borrowed from the French bande meaning troop. The synonymous word in Spanish is banda adopted from Teutonic form. The term band was used in England to apply to the King's Band of 24 violins at the court of Charles II (1660-1685). The word band represents a broad term that describes a group of musicians performing on wind and percussion instruments. Thousands years ago, when a procession of the Egyptian marched towards the shrine of Serpis, the healing-god, the musicians in the group played reed-pipes, tambourines and drums. The Bible describes, "an hundred and twenty priests sounding with trumpets." In Greece and Rome, trumpeters headed all triumphal processions. In 570 B.C., Servius Tullius introduced bronze trumpet into the Roman army. In the 12th century, the convention of musical notation was accepted; before then all music was played by ear.

King Edward II of England (1327-1377) maintained a band composed chiefly of wind instruments. In 16th century, King Henry VII of England had a band that was highly regarded in its time, containing the instrumentation of 14 trumpets, 10 trombones, 2 viols, 3 rebecs, 1 bagpipe, 4 tambourines and 4 drums. After the 30 years' war from 1618 to 1648, another progressive step occurred in the evolution of the band in Europe. In 1542, King Henry VII sent to Vienna for kettledrums that could be played on horseback after the Hungarian manner of the fons at origo, which was originally a Turkish style. Fronsperger writes that, "The German firstly adopted it, then French." Until the middle of 18th century, there was practically no regularly organized band in Europe. In 1763, King Fredrick was reputed for the first time to regulate the kinds and number of instruments used in his bands. At the end of 18th century, the Nepolenoic armies were reported to have equipped with some very efficient bands. The earliest American bands were based on British trends, and even before the American Revolution, there is record of a band led by Josiah Flagg of Boston. In 1775, the Continental Congress in United States authorized the establishment of the Marine Corps, and a band of fifers and drummers as a part of the unit. This marked the beginning of U.S. Marine Band. In 1798, the Congress re-established the Marine Corps, which in turn re-organized a band of drums and fifes. In the year 1800, the band presented its first open-air concert in Washington. In 1810, the Eleventh Militia Regiment organized the first official band in New York, and by 1823, there were five bands in New York. The band of Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore (1829-1892) organized a Grand National Band with the help of army, consisting of 500 bandmen with a number of additional drum and bugle players during the Civil War in March 4, 1864.

The modern band originated in 1789 as a result of French Revolution. It was Bernard Sarrette (1765-1858), who formed the band of the National Guard in Paris. This group of 45 players was immediately in demand for the popular demonstration and public ceremonies. By 1790, this band had 70 players and led to the formation of many military and town bands throughout Europe. The French band tradition reached its zenith in the great Funeral and Triumphal Symphony of Hector Berlioz (1803-1869), a write-up for a band of 208 players for the dedication of the Bastille Column in 1840. In 1838 at Berlin, 1000 wind instruments and 200 drummers were assembled by the organizer of Prussian military music to perform in honour of the Russian Emperor. Wilhelm Wieprecht (1802-1872) was chiefly responsible for organizing the band in 1854 as we see it today. It was through his example that the use of horns and trumpets with valves or keys became universally accepted. Besides, Saxophone and Adolphe Sax (1814-1894) and Theobald Boehm contributed to the development of the modern band and its music. By the middle of 19th century, bands in Europe had become an important part of every country's musical as well as military life. The famous bands were the Royal Horse Guards and the bands of the Grendier Guards led by Sir Daniel Godfrey (1831-1931), the best-known bandmaster of his time.

The scouts in India advocated the orient bands and introduced it around 1890. The British armies brought best pipers and drummers in India during the first world war (1914-1919) for Indian armed forces, viz. Baloch, Pathan, Punjab, Sikh and Dogra Regiments. This was soon followed by Police and Auxiliary forces, Scouts and other units.
Islamic contribution in the band

Naqqar Khana (drum house), Naqqara Khana (kettledrum house) and Nawba Khana (military band house) are the common names given in Islamic lands to the military band. Early Arabian writers mentioned the tambourine (duff) of the matrons and singing girls (kiyan) in battles. According to al-Mufazal bin Salama (d. 920), "The duff or tambourine was an Arab origin, equating with Hebrew toph and Assyrian adapa." Tuwais, the first great musician in the days of Islam, played the duff mura'bba (square tambourine). The round form of duff with snares was probably ghirbal, so called because it was round like a sieve. The duff became the Persian duff or dap, the Kurdish dafik, the Albanian def and the Spanish adufe. Farmer writes that, "The duff or tambourine was popularized in Europe by the Moors of Spain and was for a long time, known as the tambour de Basque." The surna or reed-pipe was invented by Zunam (d. 791) who was in the Abbasid court during caliph Harun ar-Rashid. He named it Zunami, which found its way into Western Europe, and there corrupted into Zullame. Under the Umayyad, the drum and kettledrum appear to have been introduced into martial music and served as better accomplishments to the reed-pipe (mizmar), then the early Abbasids led Persian reed-pipe (surnay) being adopted in place of the more primitive mizmar. With the Persians, the surnay went with the drum (tabl). Masudi writes that it was Tubal bin Lamak to have invented tabl or drum. The word tabl may be equated with the Assyrian tabbalu and the Egyptian tabn. According to Encyclopaedia of Islam, "The Arabic tabl or the Persian tabir was the parent of the European table, atabal, tabor, tambour etc." "Another early name for this drum" writes H.G. Farmer, "was dabdab or dabdaba. Later it came to be known as the naqqara, a word together with the instrument, which was adopted by Europe as the naqar, nacaire, etc., whilst Persian tenbal became the European timbale and tymbala."

By the 10th century, several types of kettledrums were in use in martial array. The tabl al-markab or mounted drum which was quite identical with the dabdab and the naqqara, and the great kettledrum called kus. These were used in pairs and were carried on either side of a horse or camel's neck. Ibn Khaldun mentions, "Upto the 10th century, the naqqara khana or tabl khana, which in Buwahids time, comprised kettledrums, drums, trumpets, horns and reed-pipes; was part of the insignia of the caliph." The Buwahid Amir Muiz al-Dawla (d. 967) sought from the caliph al-Muti (d. 974) the privilege of the naqqara khana, but was refused. Yet in 966, this caliph permitted a general to sound like kettledrum during a campaign. It is said however that the first prince to obtain these coveted musical honour was the Buwahid Amir Adud al-Dawla (d. 983). He was granted the naqqara khana by caliph al-Tai in 979. In the year 1000, under the caliph al-Kadir, a minister was allowed to beat a drum, and in 1017, the Buwahid Sultan al-Dawla was granted similar honour. In Yamen in the 9th century, the ruler al-Mansur bin Hasan had 30 drums. Sa'id al-Ahwal (d. 1089) of Banu Najah had countless horns and drums. In Oman during the 14th century, the sultan had reed-pipes, horns, trumpets and drums at his gate. At the beginning of 11th century, the people of Malaga in Spain are reported to be keen on playing the ud (lute), tunbur (pandore), mizmar (reed-pipe), etc.

According to Tabakat-i Nasiri (London, 1881), "The Fatimids of Egypt dispensed musical honours upon subject rulers on every march on the same lines as the caliph of Baghdad." When Imam al-Muzz marched into Syria, he had 500 horns (abwak) sounding. The music was adopted by quite a large military band at the Fatimid palace. Nasir Khusaro visited Cairo, and describes the Fatimid military band comprised of horn (buk), reed-pipe (surna), two kinds of drums (tabl and duhul), kettledrums (kus) and eymbal (kasa). Zahiri writes, "The band of Sultan Baybar I (d. 1277) comprised of 40 great kettledrums, 4 drums, 4 reed-pipes and 20 trumpets." Ibn Taghribirdi says, "Under Kalaun (d. 1290), a vizir had a tabl khana and we read similar privilege in 1418." In India, the naqqara khana of Mughal emperor Akbar (d. 1602) had been mentioned by Abul Fazal in his Ain-i Akbari, which was made up of the monster kettledrum called kuwarga or kurga (about 18 pairs), the kettledrum or naqqara (about 20 pairs), the drum or duhul (4), the reed-pipe or surna (9), the large trumpet or karna (4 or more), the trumpet or nafir, the horn or singh (2) and cymbals or singh (3 pairs).

The Turks made prominent contribution in the military band. When Ottoman I, the founder of Ottoman dynasty became a prince in 1289, he was invested with a drum, flag and tuk. Orkhan (d. 1360) was first to introduce the drum. Murad IV (d. 1640) introduced large trumpet or karma. Military music was regularly organized during this period, and Turkish bands comprised the large reed-pipe or kaba zurna (2), the small reed-pipe or jura zurna (3), the flute or nai (1), the big drum or kaba duhul (1), the simple drum (3), the kettledrum or kus (1), the kettledrum or naqqara (2), the cymbal or zill (one large and two small pairs) and the jingling Johnny or caghana (2). Sultan's military band had 62 players under the commander, or band-master, known as mir mehtar table wa-alam, which was instrumental with reed-pipe (16), the trumpet (11), the drum (16), the kettledrum (8), the great kettledrum (4) and the cymbal (7 pairs).

More definite was the Turkish influence on European military music in early 18th century. The credit of having inaugurated this belongs to Polland and was due to full Turkish military band, which Augustus II (d. 1733), the King of Polland received from Constantinople. Russia was the next to acquire the Turkish technique, when in 1725, the Empress Anne (d. 1740) sent a mission to Turkey to form one of these bands. Austria followed in 1741, when Chevalier von der Trenck marched into Vienna preceded by a Turkish band. France adopted it about the same time, and when the famous Marshal Count de Saxe (d. 1750) had this Turkish music during the Austrian Succession War of 1741. Great excitement was created in Europe when around 1750, a whole Muslim family of new percussion instruments was introduced by traveling bands from Turkey. Composers were soon busy writing the Turkish music with parts for tambourines, cymbals, triangles, bass drums and other clanging and beating instruments. According to Encyclopaedia of Islam, "The percussion instruments in the modern military bands of Europe were adopted from Turkey in the 18th century, and when adopted in orchestral (string band) music, they were for a long time called, Turkish Music." It is also recorded that Fredrick II (d. 1786), the King of Prussia, had a band of Turkish music, which he commanded to perform before Ahmed Effendi, the Turkish Ambassador at Berlin in 1760.

Fortescus writes in History of the British Army (London, 1899) that, "In almost every Islamic land today, the march of Western Civilization has brought Western ideas of the military band. Brass and reed instruments of European manufacture and of equal temperament are gradually suiting the old conception of the naqqar khana. Yet in the middle ages, it was Europe that borrowed it from the Muslims."

In Indo-Pakistan subcontinent, the Ismailis had to spend large sum on local bands on the occasions of jubilation, marriages and festivities. The first Ismaili Band therefore came into existence in 1926 with the efforts of H.H. The Aga Khan Volunteer Corps in Bombay, and then spread in other cities.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISMAILI CENTREEncyclopedia Topic

The Ismaili Centre has great importance in Ismaili society. It serves as a multipurpose place for a faithful. An Ismaili does not enter the Centre for worship only but he also learns a lesson how to lead a life of chastity, contenment, tolerance, fraternity and balance. To promote economic and social development programs and cultural activities, the Ismaili Centre in different parts of the world have been built by the Present Imam, whose detail is given below:- (see other Ismaili centre entries)

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral Ismaili Centre, Burnaby, CanadaEncyclopedia Topic

The Burnaby Jamatkhana in Canada, a tree-lined suburb of Greater Vancouver, is the first Jamatkhana and Centre is a multi-purpose building. It cost over $. 10 million. In July 24, 1982, the Lieutenan-Governor of British Columbia, the Honourable Henry Bell-Irving, in the presence of the Present Imam, the Begum Aga Khan, Mayor Lewarne of Burnaby and other distinguished guests, performed the foundation ceremony.

The building was designed by the well-known Vancouver architect, Bruno Freschi, and was intended to be a blending of contemporary and classical Islamic architecture. An expression of walls in form and geometry in surface, the building accentuated with the use of natural light and a garden setting. The exterior is clad in sandstone, with an entrance portal of marble and copper domes. The windows are of amber glass. The consistency in the use of stone materials and traditional geometric patterns. The building faces a courtyard with fountains and a landscaped garden. The entire site is surrounded by plantings of London plane and cherry trees, which complements the building and the neighbourhood.

Professional teams involved in the project were: The Foundation Company of Canada (General Contractor); Mr. Duncan Stewart of Duncan Stewart Development Management Inc (Project Consultants); Bogue Babicki & Associates Ltd (Structural Consultants); Keen Engineering Ltd (Mechanical Consultants); WT Haggert & Co Ltd (Electrical Consultants); Mr. Garr Campbell and Torrence-Vagelotos Ltd (Landsscape Consultants); William Lam & Associates (Lighting Consultants); Bolt Beranek & Newman Inc (Acoustical Consultants); and Hanscombs (Costing Consultants).

The focal point of building is the prayer hall, emphasizing its primarily religious function providing facilities for prayer for the Burnaby congregation. The building also serves as the administrative headquarters of the Canadian Ismaili jamat includes a social hall, administrative office, council chamber and classrooms for religious education.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral Ismaili Centre, DubaiEncyclopedia Topic

The Present Imam announced the first Ismaili Centre to be built in the Middle East. The Ismaili Centre, Dubai, when completed, will be comparable in scope and standing to existing major centres in London, Vancouver and Lisbon, one underway in Dushanbe and other in advanced planning stages in Toronto. The foundation laying ceremony was performed on Saturday, December 13, 2003 in presence of the Imam, His Highness Sheikh Ahmed Bin Saeed Al Maktoum, Deputy Chairman of Dubai Executive Council and President of Department of Civil Aviation representing Sheikh Mohammed Bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Crown Prince of Dubai. The Centre, designed by Egyptian architect Rami El Dahana and likely to cost US$18 million, is to be built on 13,200 square metres of land gifted by Crown Prince.

In his speech, the Imam described the Centre as "a symbol of confluence between the spiritual and the secular in Islam." Situating one of the functions of the Ismaili Centre in the tradition of Muslim piety, the Imam noted that, "a prominent feature of the Muslim religious landscape has been the variety of spaces of gathering co-existing harmoniously with the masjid." He continued, "Historically serving communities of different interpretations and spiritual affiliations, these spaces have retained their cultural nomenclatures and characteristics, from rabat and zawiya to khanaqah and jamatkhana."

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral Ismaili Centre, DushanbeEncyclopedia Topic

The foundation stone ceremony was performed in Dushanbe, Tajikistan on August 30, 2003 in presence of the Imam, President Rahmonov of Tajikistan, the Mayor Ubaidulloev and other distinguished leaders. The Imam launched a landmark cultural center in Dushanbe, marking a milestone in the 1300-year history of the jamat in Central Asia. The landscaped complex that will initiate a revitalization of cultural, educational and contemplative space and urban regeneration in Dushanbe, will also be the first permanent place of gathering and organization for the jamat of Central Asia.

Within an environment carefully designed to evoke the natural beauty of this region, the Ismaili Centre, Dushanbe will embody and articulate in a physical form, an architectural vocabulary that is quintessentially Central Asian, deeply rooted in Islamic traditions of intellectual search, of spirituality, of compassion, of generosity and of a shared understanding of pluralism. The prestigious site of 25,500 square meters is situated in the center of the city. Collaboration between and amongst architectural, engineering, landscaping and construction specialists from Tajikistan and Canada as well as consultative input from experts based in South Asia, Africa, the Near East and the Gulf will enrich the international dimension of this project. FDNA Architecture, Inc., which has taken a lead role in the planning and interior design, has to its credit, major cultural complexes, educational institutions and tourism development properties across North America, in Pakistan and in East Africa. Farouk Noormohamed, a principal with the firm, already has to his credit a number of Jamatkhana projects in North America. A range of multipurpose areas within the complex will include indoor and outdoor recreational and leisure space, facilities for exhibitions, lectures, the performing arts and musical recitals, as well as classrooms and meeting rooms and designated areas for contemplation and prayer.

Besides, the Ismaili Centre is under construction in Ottawa too.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral Ismaili Centre, HoustonEncyclopedia Topic

It was inaugurated in Houston, United State on June 23, 2003 in presence of the Imam, Governor Perry, Anita Perry, the First Lady of Texas, Mayor Wallace, leaders and representatives of the Congress of USA, the State of Texas and the city of Houston, Consuls General and distinguished guests. Its design architect was the ARCOP Group of Montreal, Canada, the General Contractor for the project, Durotech of Houston. Its senior design architect however was Mr. Ramesh Khosla of New Delhi.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral Ismaili Centre, LisbonEncyclopedia Topic

It was opened a $. 30 million Ismaili Centre in Lisbon on July 11, 1998 in presence of the Present Imam and the Portuguese President Jorge Sampaio. An 18,000 square meter complex of building and courtyards is set amidst a landscaped park off busy thoroughfares on the edge of central Lisbon. The edifice, which combines Islamic and Iberian architecture styles and is decorated with hand-painted tiles, has a prayer hall , classrooms, conference rooms and exhibition spaces. The Indian architect Raj Rewal and Frederico Valsassina of Lisbon have incorporated into the design of the Centre, a Manueline inspiration from Jeronimos Monastery and a diversity of Islamic architectural influences from Andalusia to Persia and Mughal India to Turkey. Domes are suspended on pre-stressed cables, whilst granite and steel in geometric trellises recall Islamic decorative forms but also provide structural support. Fountains and gardens of indigenous flora unite to furnish a refreshing environment, which reflects a profound Muslim concern.

One day before the inauguration, the Imam sent special message to the world Ismaili community, in which he said, "On Imamate Day 1998 another happy event will take place which is the formal inauguration of the Ismaili Centre in Lisbon, Portugal, by the Excellency the President of the Republic of Portugal, also among with the Ismaili Centres in London and Burnaby, Canada, this Centre in Lisbon will stand as a major edifice in the system of buildings, places and spaces for the use of my jamat worldwide. It is my hope and wish that the Lisbon Centre, like those in London and Burnaby, will be a proud and elegant symbol of our tariqah and will also contribute to desirable dialogue between different cultures and civilizations."

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral Ismaili Centre, LondonEncyclopedia Topic

In 1951, a religious, cultural and social center was established by the Ismaili jamat at Kensington Court, and in 1957 was moved to Palace Gate in the Borough of Kensington. In order to meet the increased needs of a growing community, the majority of whom had settled in or around London, a site for a new center was identified in 1971 at Albany Street in the London Borough of Camden. Architects were commissioned to prepare a submission for presentation to the local authorities. This submission was later withdrawn when planning agreement could not be reached with Camden and the present island site on the Cromwell Road was acquired. Plans for this site, reflecting the Ismaili community's requirements for a place of worship as well as a place of gathering, were submitted in tender to the Greater London Council. Final allocation of the site was adjudged on the basis of appropriateness of use, quality of design and price tendered.

Lord Soames, the President of the Council in the presence of the Present Imam performed the foundation stone ceremony on September 6, 1979. The construction on the site began on July 7, 1980.

The architects, the Casson Conder Partnership, were presented with an unusual design brief. The new building had to make available a substantial amount of space for use by the jamat itself as well as by others. Space was required for the religious education, senior citizen, youth and other institutional activities, such as committee meetings, seminars and receptions. In addition, the design had to meet the desire for the inclusion of a substantial public exhibition gallery. This gallery, the Zamana Gallery is managed by the Aga Khan Foundation, a non-profit international philanthropic agency, which owns most of the community's social development institutions.

The Ismaili Centre is opposite the Museum of National History and the Victoria and Albert Museum, presenting a variety of imposing and elaborately modeled facades, very different from each other in terracotta, brick and stone. Its exterior site has used material and colours which are compatible with those of the surrounding buildings while at the same time in keeping with the traditional Islamic idiom and its colours of white, light greys and blues.

In addition to the main prayer hall, there is a minor prayer hall and a group of classrooms for the religious education. It also contains a multi-purpose social hall, two committee rooms, a council chamber and a reading room, as well as administrative and other offices. The main prayer hall is situated on the second floor, where the building stretches to the limits of the site; it ends a progression through generously designed foyers and staircases, including a long concourse at the approach to the prayer hall itself. At the first floor level, the social hall opens off the main stair landing, so that most of the floor area, from one end of the building to the other, can be used as one space for receptions and audience events. Plans for the ground floor level of the building were conditioned by the need to encourage gradual dispersal to avoid crowd surges on to the pavement and, in the other direction, to absorb visitors quickly into the building upon arrival. Thus, the new entrance tunnel to South Kensington Underground Station, the widened pavements outside the deeply recessed entrances, and the generous outer hall are all planned to minimize the impact on the public pavement at peak periods. The usual roof garden has been designed by Sasaki Associates, with additional advice from the landscape architect, the Lanning Roper. The sight and sound of running water, the play of light and shade, the array of colourful plantings and the integration of the interior and exterior spaces reflect Islamic precedent and add to those aspects of the building which subtly draw from the traditions of a faith, Traditional elements of Islamic interior decor have been the inspiration for many details of the Ismaili Centre. It intended to create the characteristic at atmosphere, the intimacy, the sounds and the play of light usually associated with interiors of Islamic buildings.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISMAILI CONSTITUTIONEncyclopedia Topic

The word constitution is derived from the Latin constituere means an action of decreeing or ordaining. According to The Oxford English Dictionary (London, 1933, 2:876), "It is a decree, ordinance, law, regulation usually one made by a superior authority, civil or ecclesiastical." In the broad sense, a Constitution is a body of rules governing the affairs of an organized group.

It is within the core of the Ismaili doctrine that the Imam guides his followers according to the developing conditions of time and society. This outlook is what made Ismailism fluid. Earlier, the traditional council, known as justi dealt the community affairs on good faith. Imam Sultan Muhammad Shah formed The First Ismailia Committee in 1900 in Karachi with a set of rules and abolished the working of the justi. The founder members of the Committee were Varas Ibrahim, Varas Basaria, Mukhi Muhammad Ali, Ali Ghulmani, Kamadia Rahmatullah Lutf Ali, Kamadia Talab, Mukhi Hashuani, Mukhi Ramzan, Ali Muhammad, Asani, Fakir Muhammad, Wali Muhammad and Mukhi Muhammad Ladha Sajan. Finally, the first Ismaili Council in Bombay, comprised of 20 members, came into existence on April 9, 1906 with Varas Ibrahim Muhammad Rawjee (1862-1911) as its first President and Alijah Ahmed Devji (1859-1925) as a Hon. Secretary. Varas Ibrahim Muhammad Rawjee ordained the Constitution of the Ismaili Council on March 4, 1910, whose draft was a splendid testimonial to his scholarly mind. Thus, the Constitutions for different areas of India with certain variations were prepared. It was confined to the workings of the Ismaili Councils in different areas, but was a milestone, which sought to lay the foundation of the progress of the community. The Ismaili Council was a peculiar mixture of a semi-judicial and semi-arbitration body. It was a judicial forum because its aim was to do justice. It was a arbitration board in the sense that it tried to give quick justice without stress of techanicalities and formalities.

In Africa, it would appears from a Civil Case no, 89 of 1894 in Zanzibar, vide Zanzibar Protectorate Law Reports (London, 1919, p. 46) by William Murison and S.S. Abrahams that adjudication of communual disputes rested in the hands of a traditional council (justi) of elders, who were considered authoritative as to the Ismaili customs. Imam Sultan Muhammad Shah was reported the need of the community rules during his first East African visit in 1899. On his second visit to East Africa, the Imam issued the first Ismaili Constitution on September 9, 1905 - a set of written rules and regulations, known as The Rules of the Shi'a Imamia Councils of the Continent of Africa. The Imam said, "I have framed rules and regulations for you, which are the token of my memory. If you follow it, you will acquire great benefit. I entrusted you these rules and regulations behind me as if my tongue, so follow it. If you violate the rules, it will mean you have cut my tongue" (Zanzibar, 17/9/1905). This Constitution foresaw a new administrative organization in the form of a hierarchy of councils; it also established rules for governing the personal relation in the community, especially with respect to marriage, divorce and inheritance. With the Constitution of 1905, the Ismaili community had proved itself capable of providing stability in the midst of an ever-changing and progressive community. Around the same time, the first Ismaili Council was founded in Zanzibar. This Constitution was not published in printed form until 1922 when it appeared in English and Gujrati, then in Germany. By the early 1920s, new centers of economic activity had appeared on mainland East Africa, where the Ismailis had gradually moved. Having lost its importance as the main commercial center of the region, Zanzibar had also ceased to be the seat of the Ismaili community. It was in recognition of these changes, the Imam revised the first Constitution in 1914, 1925 and 1937, instituting separate central councils in the three territories of Tanganyika, Kenya and Uganda. The original council in Zanzibar continued for some time to co-ordinate the activities of the Territorial Councils in matters of common interest. These central functions were later delegated to a Supreme Council, separate from the council in Zanzibar. During the final three decades of the Imam's Imamate, the hierarchical system of councils, with its subsidiary bodies, was further developed on the basis of periodical revisions of the Constitution for the East African jamats; the revision occurring in 1937 with the formation of the Executive Council for Africa, Ismailia Supreme Council for Africa, Provincial and Local Councils. It was further revised in 1946 under the title of Constitution, Rules and Regulations of His Highness the Aga Khan Ismailia Councils for Africa. The Constitution was again revised in 1954 after the Imam had called a special conference of the East African councilors at Evian in July, 1952 for making necessary amendments in the existing Constitution of the councils. It however remained in force until 1962 when they all were revoked and replaced by The Constitution of the Shi'a Imami Ismailis in Africa. This Constitution was ordained on the 26th of June, 1962 and came into operation on the 11th of July of the same year. It remained operative for 25 years. Accordingly, the administrative hierarchy was headed, after the Imam, by a Supreme Council for Africa, an international body that directed, supervised and co-ordinated the activities of the three Territorial Councils. The Supreme Council, with its changing headquarters in Nairobi and other major cities of East Africa, was also empowered to act as judicial tribunal of the second degree, the highest judicial authority being the Imam himself. The 1962 Constitution also established an Executive Council for Africa with the main function of allocating funds to various organizations. It was once again amended in 1974 to meet the new demands in the society. The constitutional revision was more than anything else an attempt to coordinate local interests as the Ismaili society became more complex.

When India was partitioned in 1947, a separate but still similar Constitution and council system was developed for Pakistan. On March 21, 1961, the Ismailia Federal Council for Pakistan came into existence. Another Constitution was put into effect for the Ismailis of Pakistan on July 11, 1962.. On the basis of the Constitution of 1962 for Pakistan, each Supreme Council was responsible for supervising the activities of some of the 23 Divisional. District and Local Councils throughout the country.

In India, the Federal Council, located at Bombay directed the affairs of four Regional Council for Maharashtra, Gujrat, southern India and eastern India. At the bottom of the hierarchy, there were 28 Local Councils in India, for south Bombay, north Bombay, Jamnagar, Kutchh, Surat, Hyderabad, and so forth. On March 21, 1968, a third Constitution was promulgated in India. During his visit to India, the Imam said on February 23, 1969 in Bombay that, "Last year a new Constitution was introduced for my jamat of India. Many of you may not know that the earlier Constitution was dated 1946, that is for 22 years, our jamat implemented the same Constitution. It was my view, and it is my view, that circumstances have changed sufficiently so that a new Constitution should be introduced. If I have seen fit to introduce a new Constitution in 1968, this means that I may see fit to introduce a new Constitution in 1970, or 72, or 74. This means that no Constitution for our jamat is a firm, solid, immovable document. It is a document, which is created to assist the jamat to administer its affairs satisfactorily and in keeping with the times. Thus, I wish my spiritual children to understand that if through the implementation of this Constitution, it is found that certain matters could be better pharsed, could be amended, could be improved, the Constitution will be continuously amended. The Constitution of our jamat here in India, like in East Africa, like in Pakistan, is a living document and where it is not in keeping with the tradition of the jamat, or in keeping with what the times require, amendment will be introduced."

The Constitutions of East Africa, Pakistan and India were alike in spirit, but differed in several points according to the different circumstances prevalent in these countries. This was explained by the Present Imam upon his sanctioning The Constitution of the Councils and Jamats of Shi'a Imami Ismaili Muslims of Pakistan that, "Look to the spirit and not the letter of the Constitution."

On July 11, 1977, a Syrian delegation led by President al-Haek of the Syrian Council visited France. The Imam gave them a special message for the Syrian jamat, in which the Imam said, "On the occasion of Imamate Day, I will be introducing for formal application from now onwards, a new Constitution for my jamat in Syria. I believe this Constitution will assist in improving the administration of my jamat."

(continued..)

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISMAILI CONSTITUTION -2Encyclopedia Topic

The New Constitution of 1986
(continued..)
The Ismailis are spread in all over the world in different culture and society, and a need arose to ordain one universal Constitution applicable in common for all the Ismailis to improve the organizational structure of the institutions. In March, 1964, the Imam formed a Constitution Review Committee (CRC) under Wazir Anil Ishani (Convenor) with the members, Wazir Mohammad Jaffar, Wazir Ashiqali Hussain, Wazir Abdul Mohammad Furniturewala, Wazir Amirali Rahimtoola, Wazir Zaher Ahmed, Wazir Amir Bhatia, Wazir Zool Nimji and Huzur Mukhi Mahmood Ahmed. The CRC started its working in April, 1984 with a number of field visits in different countries. It submitted reports of its working regularly to the Imam after firs discussing them with the jamati leaders and group of the Imam's secretariat at Aiglemont. CRC had ten meetings with the Imam, culminating on December 13, 1986, the 50th Salgirah of the Imam with the ordaining ceremony at Merimont, Imam's secretariat in Geneva. The members of the Imam's family, including Begum Salimah, Princess Tajudawla, Mata Salamat, Prince Amyn Muhammad and Princess Zahra were present in Geneva during this historical ceremony. The members of CRC and those members from the secretariat at Aiglemont also participated. At 11.00 a.m., the Imam ordained, signed and sealed The Constitution of the Shi'a Imami Ismaili Muslims.

Before the ceremony, the Imam sent his message to the jamat on December 10, 1986, and said, "On the 13th December, I will ordain a new Ismaili Constitution, which will be known as The Constitution of the Shi'a Imami Ismaili Muslims. The Ismaili Constitution will be applicable throughout the world, linking all members of my jamat wherever they are to the Imamate. Islam is a community of faith and throughout the 1400 years of our history, our jamat has lived by the rules and practice of our tariqah as a frontierless brotherhood of men and women. The permanent bond, linking the murid to the Imam and subsisting irrespective of the geographical location of the individual murid, has been and will continue to remain the cornerstone of our jamat's identity. In our tariqah, the Imam of the Time has always concerned himself with the spiritual advancement as well as with the improvement of the quality of life of the jamat. In this century, in accordance with the needs of the time, my grandfather gave during his Imamate, and I have given in the past 30 years, Constitutions to the jamat in different areas of the world. The ordaining of this Constitution has been preceded by detailed examination of the existing separate Constitutions of the jamat, all of which will be superseded, when the Rules and Regulations applicable to the respective countries come into force. I have recognized that in view of the change in the demography of the jamat, it is necessary to establish new councils and for the same reason to discontinue others. This has been done. In providing the new Constitutional structure, I have also taken account of recent significant developments, such as the increasingly international dimension of the jamat's settlement and especially my aspiration for the jamat to play an even more active part than in the past in the mainstream of life in the societies in which it lives." The Imam also said, "It is my belief that the Ismaili Constitution will provide a strong institutional and organizational framework through which my jamat will be able to contribute to the harmonies development of the ummah and of the societies in which the jamat lives." Besides, the Imam said, "The Ismaili Constitution recognizes and addresses many of the jamat's present and future needs, but it is to be expected that some adjustment will need to be made in the practical application of the Constitution to meet local circumstances. These adjustment will be made on a case by case basis, in the rules and regulations which will be provided in respect of each country. I am confident that the Ismaili Constitution will give stronger integrated identity to my jamat worldwide, and that in abiding by it in letter and spirit, the jamat will achieve greater peace, unity, happiness, security and well-being."

The New Constitution is a single unified paramount constitution, which applies to all Ismailis wherever domiciled or resident and superseded constitutions applicable to Ismailis in different countries. The jamat in individual countries, however, have their own rules and regulations by virtue of the Constitution, which makes detailed provisions for their governance and their institutions.

The Preamble to the new Constitution affirms all the fundamental Islamic beliefs and then clearly focuses on the doctrine of the Imamate. It sets out the essence of the Ismaili beliefs as Shi'a Imami Ismaili Muslims who affirm the Shahadah and that the Prophet Muhammad (peace be on him) is the last and final Prophet of God, and that Islam, as revealed in the Koran, is the final message of God to mankind, and is universal and eternal. The Preamble states the authority of the Imam in the Ismaili tariqah and that allegiance to the Imam unites all Ismaili Muslims worldwide in their loyalty, devotion and obedience to the Imam within the Islamic concept of universal brotherhood. It further states that from the time of Ali bin Abu Talib, the Imams have given rules of conduct and constitutions in conformity with the Islamic concepts of unity, brotherhood, justice, tolerance and goodwill.

The hierarchical administrative system of councils is somewhat simplified in the Constitution of 1986, which envisages a uniform system of councils for a selection of the Ismaili territories in the Eastern and Western hemispheres of the world. Taking account of the fact that large number of the Ismailis have immigrated during the last two decades to Europe, Canada and Unites States as well as to the Persian Gulf region, the new Constitution has established the council system for a number of these newly founded Ismaili communities in addition to modifying the system for several communities in the traditional abodes of the Ismailis in Asia and Africa. The particular Ismaili communities having the council system under the new Constitution are located in 14 territories, including India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Malaysia and Singapore, the Gulf Co-operation Council Countries (i.e., Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates), Syria, the Malagasy Republic, Kenya, Tanzania, France, Portugal, the United Kingdom, Canada and the United States. In each of these fourteen territories, a National Council will direct and supervise the affairs of a network of Regional and Local Councils. The jurisdiction of each National Council may be extended to geographical areas where the jamats do not have their own council system. The administrative system of the councils has not been extended to several countries and regions of the Near East and Asia, such as Persia, Afghanistan, and the upper Oxus region, where scattered Ismaili jamats exist; while the Syrian jamat acquired the council system only under the terms of the 1986 Constitution.

ISMAILI COUNCIL [ see ISMAILI CONSTITUTION ]

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISMAILI FLAGEncyclopedia Topic

The Arabic word for the flag is alam (pl. a'lam), meaning signpost or flag. The terms liwa and raya are also used for the flag, banner or standard. In Persian, the word band and dirafsh, and in Turkish, the bayrak is used for the banner. And as flags serve to delineate a ruler's territory, it is not surprising that one of the Turkish terms for a certain administrative unit is sancak, i.e., flag.

It is simply a piece of flexible cloth, varying in size, colour and device, but most frequently oblong or square, borne on by one edge to a staff or to a halyard, or fastened to a trident pole; used as a standard, ensign or signal and also for decoration or display. It is tied normally to a staff at least on one side to be viewed from both sides. Among the forms of flags are standards, banners, ensigns, pennants or pendants, burgees and guidons.

The English word flag first occurred in 1569. The word evolved in different European languages, such as the Scandinavian as flagg or flagga, the Germany as flagge or flacke, the Danish as flag, the Dutch as vlag or vlagghe, etc. Whether the word originated in English or other European languages, it may plausibly be supposed to be an onomatopoeic formation, expressing the notion of something flapping in the wind.

The word banner also is seen in different forms in the European languages, such as it was banare or baniere in old French, banieira or bandieira in present French, bandera in Spanish, bandum or bannum in Latin, bandwa in Gothic, etc. Banners, which were essentially heraldic, go back to 1162 by Count Philip of Fanders. In the literal sense, now chiefly historical; in poetry or elevated prose, it is applied to the standard or flag in figurative expressions. In sum, the banner is a piece of stout taffeta, or other cloth, attached by one side to the upper part of a long pole or staff, and used as the standard. There is no hard and fast rule governing the size of the flag. The width is usually greater than the depth. There is also no universally accepted code of flag law.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISMAILI FLAG - Alamut periodEncyclopedia Topic

"Hasan bin Sabbah (1034-1124) took possession of the fort of Alamut in Iran in 1090. His immediate concerns were to refortify Alamut, provide for it food and water supply, irrigate the field in the valley, acquire adjacent castles, erect forts at strategic points, institute economic and social reforms and unite the Ismailis. Thus, he succeeded to establish the Nizarid Ismailis rule in Alamut. It appears from the fragments of the historical sources that, the Ismailis continued green colour as their standard, and Hasan bin Sabbah is reported to have hoisted it for the first time on the summit of the Alamut.

On August 8, 1164, Imam Hasan Ala Zikrihi's Salam (1162-1166) commemorated a historical occasion of qiyamat-i qubra in Alamut. According to Jamiut Tawarikh (compiled in 1310 A.D.), four large banners of four colours, white, red, yellow and green were set up at the four corners of the pulpit. Haft Bab-i Baba Sayyid'na (comp. in 1200 A.D.) writes that Hasan bin Sabbah had foretold the advent of qiyamat-i qubra, and said, "When the Imam appears, he will sacrifice a camel, and bring forth a red standard." It implies that the virtual penetration of red colour in the Ismaili tradition took place in the period of Alamut.

The Ismaili flag also reflected superiority and a peak of glory of the Alamut rule. In 1213, the mother of Imam Jalaluddin Hasan (1210-1221) went on the pilgrimage to Mecca under the patronage of the Abbasid Caliph Nasir (1180-1225), who received her with great pomp and deference. On that occasion, the Abbasid Caliph placed the flag of Khwarazamshah behind that of the Ismailis in the caravan of the pilgrims

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISMAILI FLAG - Early History Encyclopedia Topic

"In its origin, and throughout its history until down to recent times, the banner, standard or flag executed primarily a religious purpose with an object to indicate something rather than to gather people together. The earliest known representation of Egyptian banners are those found on the votive tablet of Nar-Mer (4000-5000 B.C.) at Hierakonpolis; on this are represented four bearers, carrying poles with various emblems on the top of them. Artifacts indicate that as early as 4000 B.C., the Egyptian ships also utilized a standard. Similar standards are found in many of the ancient cultures of the Middle East. Among the Indo-Germanic peoples, the use of the flags goes back to very early times. The Athara Veda (v.xxi.12) speaks of the armies of the gods as suryaketu (sun-bannered) and the Mahabharata (x16, lxxxii.23) of the hero Meghasandhi as vanaraketana (monkey-bannered). In the Avesta (Yasna x.14) there is mention of the kine banner (gaus drafso).

The ensigns referred to in the Bible (Nu. 1:52, 2:2) were most probably of this type. The word degel (Nu. 21.9) perhaps corresponds more with the banner in the strict senses. Among the Phoenicians and Greek they were employed simply for signaling purposes in naval warfare. The Romans used at least six kinds of standard for their military and naval forces. Roman legions sometimes went into the battle behind the effigy of an eagle, wolf or bear borne at lance point. A more familiar form was the Roman cavalry flag, a square piece of cloth attached to a crossbar at the point of a spear. The Chinese were using silk flags as early as the 5th century B.C. This was so popular flag that after the fall of the Roman Empire, it was employed in Britain from the 8th century until as late as 1485. Presently, the Dannebrog (the flag of the Dones or the red flag) is the oldest national flag of Denmark, which is known since 1219 A.D.

According to American Educator (New York, 1973, 7th vol., p. 131), "Flags in the modern sense probably originated in either the Orient or the Middle East. More certain is the tradition that the Saracens (the Muslims) introduced true flags, including attachment to the Europeans during the Crusades." It may also be noted that the fastening of the cloth directly to the lance is recorded as an Arab peculiarity. In Europe there was usually no device on the cloth or, if there was one, it was purely ornamental.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISMAILI FLAG - Fatimid period Encyclopedia Topic

"Imam Radi Abdullah (840-881) had sent his da'is in all directions from Syria to propagate Ismailism. The most acclaimed among them was Ibn Hawshab (d. 914), who was sent to Yamen in 880. He made a large conversion and established an Ismaili rule. He took possession of a stronghold on a hillock and made it his headquarters. He hoisted the green banner at his headquarters, bearing the Koranic verse on it. Meanwhile, Abu Abdullah al-Shi'i (d. 911) conquered almost whole Maghrib and routed the Aghlabid rule of 112 years. He captured Raqada and made it his headquarters on March 25, 909. He started the Fatimid khutba and struck coins. He hoisted most significantly the Fatimid banner. Ibn Hammad (d. 1230) writes in Akhbar al-Muluk Bani Ubayd wa Siyaratihim (Paris, 1927, pp. 7-8) that Abu Abdullah also got his slogans inscribed on banners, weapons, trapping and seals. The banner had an inscription of the Koranic verse: "Soon shall the hosts be routed, and they shall turn their backs." (54:45).

The Fatimids adopted green as the colour of their standard. According to American Educator (New York, 1973, 7:131), "Green is frequently found in Arab flags because this colour was taken by the Fatimite dynasty, which ruled most of north Africa." It is also mentioned in The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (4: 812) that, "Green was the colour of the Fatimid dynasty and eventually it became the colour of Islam."

Makrizi (d. 1442) writes in al-Khitat (1:23) that, "During the Caliphate of the Fatimids, a separate department of making banners for different occasions had been erected, known as khazinat al-bunud (store of banners). The word bunud (pl. of band) was used for banner or flag. These banners were used during battles and festive occasions, wherein the Koranic verses were written. The total cost of the department was 80,000 dinars per year." The chief banner was known as "liwa'i hamd" which had been used by Ali bin Abu Talib in the battles, and was the favourite banner of the Fatimid Imams. One of the emblems of royal authority was the outfit (alah), the display of banners and flags.

The Fatimids divided their armies into smaller units. This arrangement was called "the battle order" (ta'biyah). In front of the Commander stood one army with its own battle lines, its own general and flag. It was called "the advance guard". Then, to the right of the place where the Commander was, stood another army, called "the right flank". The army on left side was called "the left flank". Then, there was another army behind the whole armies, called "the rear guard"(saqa). Separate from them and in front of the centre went the vanguard (jalishiya) with its own commander and flag.

Ibn Hammad (p. 57) writes that Imam al-Mansur (946-952) returned to the capital in triumph soon after the final defeat of Abu Yazid in 948. He was met in Kairwan by the notables mounted on fine horses and carrying drums and green flags.

When the Fatimid general Jawhar made his successful footing on the soil of Egypt on July 4, 969 as a conqueror, he sent his representative ahead in the city with a white flag. Stanley Lane Poole writes in History of Egypt (London, 1914, p. 102) that, "Jawhar, like his master, always disposed to a politic leniency, renewed his former promises, and granted a complete amnesty to all who submitted. A herald bearing a white flag rode through the streets of Fustat, proclaiming the amnesty and forbidding pillage and on August 5, the Fatimid army, with full pomp of drums and banners, entered the capital."

Jawdhar al-Azizi (d. 974) writes in Sirat al-Ustadh Jawdhar (p. 83) that when Imam al-Muizz (952-975) ascended in 952, he delivered a sermon in his inaugural appearance that he and his people would be allowed to visit the tomb of the Prophet in Medina, to mount his minbar, to visit his house, to accomplish the pilgrimage to Mecca, and to stand with banners unfurled at the illustrious sacred places.

In 977, when Imam al-Aziz (975-996) set out to conquer Syria, the outfit (alah) of the Fatimids was composed of 500 banners and 500 trumpets. It was a grand procession in front of the Fatimid army when marching towards the enemies. B.J. Beshir writes in Fatimid Military Organization (Der Islam 55, 1978, pp. 51-2) that, "Spies and guerillas were to be sent in front of the army; when the army encamped, trenches were dug. Before marching, standards, flags and emblems were flown."

Jaylam bin Shayban founded a Fatimid vassal state in Sind with its base at Multan before 968. He is reported to have introduced the Fatimid coins, and recited the Fatimid khutba. He reported to Imam al-Muizz in Cairo, how he succeeded to establish the Fatimid vassal state. The Imam replied him in 354/968. The letter of the Imam is cited in Uyun'l Akhbar (6:219). In the concluding paragraph of the letter, the Imam said, "We have sent you some of our banners, which you can unfurl in case of need. Whenever they are unfurled over the heads of the believers, God increases their glory by the banners and hails them with His assistance; on the other hand, when they are unfurled over the heads of the unbelievers, the banners humiliate their pride and overwhelm them by the power of God, Who is our Benefactor."

It is to be noted that three kinds of public holiday celebrations involved the participation of the Imam in Fatimid Egypt, such as the general Islamic holidays, Ismaili holidays and local Egyptian festivals of the agriculture calendar. The Ismaili holidays included Navroz, birthday of Ali, Fatima, Hasan, Hussain and the Imam of the age; and Eid al-Ghadir. In all these occasions, the city of Cairo was decorated with green Fatimid flags and illuminations.

Makrizi (d. 1442), Ibn Taghribirdi (d. 1469) and Kalkashandi (d. 1418) had described the pomp of the Fatimid procession in which the Imam himself participated during the New Year's Day. From the descriptions, the procession was really imposing, and the sight was fascinating when it advanced through the streets of Cairo with houses covered with spectators, with noise and commotion, which filled the city. The passage abounds in various expressions and names of different objects, varieties of cloth, ornaments, banners, etc. The procession included the display of the Fatimid banners. The issuing of all these articles for the procession was usually finished by the 28th of the month of Zul-hijja, and on the morning of the 29th the Imam personally visited a special place at which his chargers were produced for his inspection. He rode across the palace ground to the gate called Bab al-Mulk, where the inspection ground was situated, where a rehearsal of the procession was demonstrated before the Imam. When the procession was finally formed, the governor of Cairo, with his men, cleared the streets from the crowd, so that the procession could advance without hindrance. While riding in the procession, the Imam had exclusive right to be accompanied by two "banners of glory" as they were called. They were small, made of white silk embroidered with gold. They were carried folded. There were also twenty-one coloured banners, with inscriptions made in colours different from the banner itself. They measured two by one and a half yards, and were fixed on long spears.

But the most important were two special flags which were carried before all these flags, consisted of a hollow golden lion's head with opened mouth, fixed between two ends of a crescent the middle part of which formed the head of a spear. To the side which constituted the neck of the lion's head a long bag of yellow or red dibaj was affixed. While riding against the wind, the air would pass through the mouth of the lion's head and inflate the bag. These banners were carried by two riding officials.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISMAILI FLAG - Green colour - its special features Encyclopedia Topic

"The Ismaili flag contains rich green colour with a red strip descending from left upper corner to the bottom of right side, making a cross mark in the flag. The nature of the characteristics, which the Ismaili flag, acquired green and red colours (lawn) from the historical context will be explored briefly in the following lines.

Green (akhdar) is synonymous with nature. For the Arabs, as for many other people, green is the symbol of good luck, of natural fertility, of vegetation, of youth. For Islam, the green standard of the Prophet and the green cloak of Ali bin Abu Talib have become the very emblems of the religion. As a beneficent colour, green belongs so naturally to the popular spirit of the Arabs that their colloquial language is full of expression where this colour symbolizes joy, gaiety or success. Green is mentioned six times in the Koran as an adjective (khudr, akhdar), vide 12:43, 46:18, 31, 36:80, 55:76 and 76:21, and once as a participle (22:63). Giving the description of green, the Koran also says, "Reclining on green cushions and beautiful carpets" (55:76) and "Do you not see that God sends down water from the cloud so the earth becomes green?" (22:63). In Syria, a green land is used in describing a lucky person. To wish somebody a good year, one uses the expression green year, and when one takes up residence in a new dwelling, green leaves of beet are hung there as a token of good luck. In Morocco, the expression my stirrups are green means, "I bring the rain when I travel into an area where it is awaited." The Prophet himself declared, "The sight of green is agreeable to the eyes as the sight of a beautiful woman" (al-Jahiz, Tarbi, p.137). "The colour green," said al-Simnani, "is the most appropriate to the secret of the mystery of mysteries." Johann L. Fleischer writes that, "Najmuddin Kubra gives an exact description of the revelations of coloured lights that occur to the initiate during his spiritual training : there are dots and spots and circles; the soul passes through periods of black colour and of black and red spots until the appearance of the green colour indicates that divine grace is near - green has always been considered the highest and heavenly colour."

The emerald is thought to avert evil, and its green colour, the colour of paradise, gave this stone a special place in Muslim thought. Thus, according to a saying, the Guarded Tablet (lawh mafuz) on which everything is written from pre-eternity, consists of abundant green emeralds.

In Islamic cosmology, Mount Kaf encircling the terrestrial world, is made of green, whose colour is reflected by the celestial vault. According to Encyclopaedia of World Art (Rome, 1959, 4:723), "Green was probably the colour of the Prophet himself and of his descendants through his daughter Fatima. This colour is mentioned in the Koran and was considered the restorative and healthful colour of paradise itself." Abu Rimthah Rifa'ah Taimi relates: "I saw the Prophet wearing two green garments." (Abu Daud, 1520:1135). Ibn Yala narrates, "I saw the Prophet circumambulating round the Kaba, wearing a green sheet, passing under his armpit" (Tabaqat, 2:536). It is related that the Prophet left behind three robes, which were mostly worn at the time of battle, and of these one was made of green brocade (diba).

Annemarie Schimmal writes in her Deciphering the Signs of God (Cambridge, 1994, p. 16) that one thing, is clear : green is always connected with Paradise and positive, spiritual things, and those who are clad in green, the sabzpush of Persian writings, are angels or saints. This is why, in Egypt, Muslims would put green material around tombstones : it should foreshadow Paradise. Green is also the colour of the Prophet, and his descendants would wear a green turban.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISMAILI FLAG - Islamic period Encyclopedia Topic

"The Islamic state of Medina continued the old Arab custom. In this context, the sources mention two synonyms, i.e., liwa (flag) and rayah (standard). It was liwa (pl alwiyah), which was ordinarily used in all expeditions; but ruyat (pl. of rayah) were used in all the battles. The Islamic armies under the Prophet was drawn from various tribes. Each unit consisted of a tribe, usually fighting under its own chief. Each tribe had its own tribal banner borne aloft by its bravest champion.

This office or military post retained its tribal character through out the period of the Prophet. Nevertheless, the Prophet representing the central authority, had his own banner mostly green in colour. Reuben Levy writes in The Social Structure of Islam (Cambridge, 1962, pp. 434-5) that, "Flags had another significance in Muslim warfare. Each tribe had its own and regarded it as the ralling centre in battle, for near it was the commander." When the Prophet ordered an expedition in Medina, no call was made aloud or any trumpet was blown, but he planted his green banner in the mosque to rally the Muslims under it.

Statistics show that the military organization in the period of the Prophet took its due course to develop. He appointed a number of military officers and functionaries as and when the strategic and military demands of the time required. With the passage of time, he appointed the officers and functionaries included the commanders of the expeditions (umara' al-saraya), wing-officers (umara' al-maimanah), scouts (tali'ah), spies (uyun), guides (dalil), officers to look after booty and the prisoners of war (ashab al-maghanim wa al-asara), officers for weapons and horses (ashab al-silah wa al-faras), body-guards (ashab al-haras), and the standard-bearers (sahib al-liwa wa al-rayah) etc. Ammar bin Yasir relates that the Prophet always liked that every person should fight under the banner of his own unit of forces.

Ibn Abbas narrates that the colour of the Prophet's flag was green and of standard white. During the battle of Badr, three different banners however were used; the bigger one was in the hands of Ali bin Abu Talib, containing the symbol of an eagle (ukab), representing the force of the Muhajirin.

While the one leading the Ansar was assigned to Sa'd bin Mu'adh. Waqidi (d. 822) writes in Kitab al-Maghazi (London, 1966, p. 226) that the white banner was given to Musab bin Umayr of the clan of Abdul Dar. He carried the Prophet's white banner in Badr and Uhud in memory of the old privilege of the clan of Abdul Dar. The Prophet however executed overall as a supreme commander in the battle. On the other hand, the Meccans likewise had three banners, one of which was born by Talha bin Abi Talha, the other by Abu Ghazyr bin Umayr, and the third by Nassar bin Harith, all of whom were the descendants of Abdul Dar.

In the battle of Uhud, the Meccans mobilized all their powers and resources and came out to avenge the deaths of their men fallen in the battle of Badr. The Meccans filled the battlefield with the victims of fighting and the banner of the Muslims fell from the hands of Musab bin Umayr when he died bravely. The Prophet called Ali to take over as a standard-bearer. In one hand, he held the banner, and in the other that favourite sword Zulfikar. Thus, Ali took over the banner, which went up unfurled in his hand during the fighting which had reached its climax by that time.

Tabari (d. 923) writes in Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk (Cairo, 1960, 2:402) that when the Prophet sent his first expedition under the command of his uncle, Hamza towards Sif al-Bahr at the western coast in 629 with 30 soldiers, he also sent one standard-bearer with him. Tabari (2:402) further writes that, "The importance of the symbol may be gauged from the prominence given to the names of those who bore the Prophet's banner and that of the Ansar at the battle of Badr, also of the standard-bearers in other later engagements. The phrase used for sending out an expedition is to bind on a banner, and the granting of a banner was regarded as the sign of conferring command."

In the battle of Khaibar in 629, the Prophet declared a day before an operation, "Tomorrow, I will hand over the banner of Islamic army to such a person who is an impetuous warrior and not an absconder; he befriends God and His Apostle and is also befriended by them. God is sure to grant victory on his hands." Every one of the Prophet's Companions was anxious to be signalized on the morrow as the friend of God and His Prophet. They passed the night in great anxiety as to which one would prove to be the blessed one. Sa'd bin Abi Waqqas narrates, "I knelt down opposite to the Prophet, and then rose, hoping to obtain the banner." The Prophet however asked, "Where is Ali bin Abu Talib? Bring him here." In short, Ali had been given the charge to lead the assault. The green Islamic banner, which the Prophet had planted before his camp besides the tree where it laid through the night, heavy with dew, flew limpidly. The Prophet pulled the banner out from the ground, raised it, and after shaking it three times, he confided it into the right hand of Ali, saying, "Take this standard and march on with it until God grant you victory." Hubab al-Munzir and Sa'd bin Ubaidah also followed Ali with another banners. For the first time, three distinct banners were used instead of the small pennants hitherto sported in battle.

Jabir bin Abdullah narrates that the Prophet entered in Mecca with white flags at the head of the army. Islamic Shi'ite Encyclopaedia (Beirut, 1970, 2:127) writes that on that memorable day, the banner of Islam was carried by the Ansar leader, Sa'd bin Abadah at the head of the army. No sooner did he see the outskirts of Mecca than his mind was flooded with the memories of the Qoraish hostility towards the Prophet and his followers. He cried out in emotion, "This day is the day of massacre. Today it is permitted to kill in the Kaba." When the Companions heard this cry, they became terrified and hurried to the Prophet and related to him the words of Sa'd. The Prophet called Ali and said, "Go to Sa'd immediately and take the banner from him. You should be the first one to enter Mecca." Tabari (2: 445) writes that, "The utterance of Sa'd bin Abadah was defeating the objective of the Prophet, who intended to hoist Islamic banner in Mecca without bloodshed, therefore, he immediately removed Sa'd and designated Ali as his standard-bearer." This errand was the entry of Mecca with modesty, peace and humble attitude of the Muslims without massacre.

In 629, the Prophet mustered a force of 3000 men at the command of Zaid bin Harith for the Mauta expedition against Shurahbil bin Amir, the Ghassanid governor in Syria. During the thick of the battle, the Muslims found themselves in presence of a force several times more numerous than themselves. Zaid bin Harith seizing the banner, led the charge of the Muslims, plunging into the midst of the enemy ranks until he fell transfixed by their spears. Seeing him fall from his horse, Jafar Taiyar rushed timely to grab the banner from the dying Zaid, and raised it aloft to command the Muslim force. The enemies closed in on the heroic Jafar, who was soon covered with wounds. Fighting at close quarters, Jafar was struck from the side at first on his right hand by the enemies. As the bleeding hand, hung to the flimsy muscles, he took the sword in his left hand, pressing the banner to the saddle. Then the left hand was cut off and as his sword fell, Jafar took the banner from the saddle with the stumps of his bleeding hands. When both his hands were cut off gripping the banner, he still stood firm holding the staff between his two stumps, until the enemies struck him a mortal blow. As Jafar fell from the horse in that blood soaked field of Mauta, Abdullah bin Rawaha immediately took the banner from the slain man. Abdullah bin Rawaha also met death in the encounter. Khalid bin Walid assumed control on that juncture. He took the banner and methodically withdrew from the field with the Muslim force and returned to Medina.

It was the common practice that the signal for the attack was given by the waving of the flags or by trumpet blast or both. Baladhuri writes in Futuh al-Buldan (ed. M.J. de Goeje, Leyden, 1866, p. 303) that during the battle of Nihawand, Noman bin Muqaran, the amil said, "I noticed that when the Prophet failed to give battle in the morning he would wait until the sun set and the wind blew." He added: "I shall now shake the banner I carry three times. At the first shake let each man perform his ablutions and satisfy his natural wants; at the second each attend to his sword and prepare himself. When the third shake comes, charge; and let no man heed his neighbour."

In sum, during the eight years of fighting, there had been almost 101 expeditions (sariyah, pl. sarayah) and battles (ghazwah, pl. ghazawat), in which 27 were commanded himself by the Prophet, and remaining 74 were led by other persons he nominated. The Prophet is reported to have appointed about 86 standard-bearers (sahib al-liwa wal-rayah) in Medina from among 9 Arabian tribes during the expeditions and battles. The most important from among the Qoraish was Ali, who was assigned the banners as many as ten times. The other standard-bearers were Zubayr bin Awwam of Asad, Hamza bin Abd al-Muttalib of Hashim, Sa'd bin Abi Waqqas of Zuhrarh, Musab bin Umayr of Abdul Dar, Abu Bakr of Taym and Umar bin Khattab of Adi. From among the Khazraj tribe, the famous standard- bearers were Sa'd bin Ubaidah, Hubab al-Munzir, Zaid bin Thabit and Umarah bin Hazm. Among the Aws tribe were Sa'd bin Mu'az and Usayd bin al-Huzayr, etc.

According to The Social Structure of Islam (London, 1957, p. 3), "Before his death in A.D. 632, Muhammad had gathered to his banner most of the inhabitants of Arabia. The exceptions were Jews and a few Christians and Magians, whom he permitted to remain in their own faith provided they recognized his political overlordship by the payment of a poll-tax."

One rare banner preserved in the Topkapi Saray Museum at Istanbul, called as-Sinjaqu

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISMAILI FLAG - Ismaili flag & New Ismaili Constitution of 1986 Encyclopedia Topic

"The Present Imam ordained the new Ismaili Constitution on Saturday, December 13, 1986 at Merimont in Geneva. Leaders of the jamat who were mandated to work on the new Ismaili Constitution had come from various parts of the world. It was indeed a historic occasion where the family members of the Imam, members of the Constitution Review Committee and the staff of the Secretariat from Aiglemont were present. At 11.00 a.m., the Imam ordained, signed and sealed "The Constitution of the Shi'a Imami Ismaili Muslims"

It is clearly seen in the photo of Hazar Imam when he was ordaining the New Ismaili Constitution that there was a small Ismaili flag on Imam's table, having an image of the Coat-of-Arms, i.e., the monogram of a crown (taj) on it.

It should be noted that the new Constitution does not allow any Ismaili to misuse the Ismaili flag or its colours for any other purpose. The Article of the Constitution clearly lays down that:-

16 .2 In accordance with the history and tradition of the jamat, there shall be:

(a) an Ismaili flag in the form and colours set out in the tenth schedule hereto subject to such code as to the usage thereof as may be prescribed from time to time by Mawlana Hazar Imam.

16.3 no person shall use the Ismaili flag or the colours of the Ismaili flag in configuration

resembling the Ismaili flag or the nashid al-imamah for any commercial, advertisement,

publicity, propaganda or similar purposes.

It is a key point to note that the word "My Flag" is not referred to in the New Ismaili Constitution, but the word "Ismaili Flag" is simply used instead.

The Ismaili flag is flown on the Jamatkhana, mostly on special festive occasions, the gracious arrival of the Imam and the day when the Imam sends any farman to the jamat. As soon as the occasion is over, the flag is required to be removed and folded up. It is quite improper to keep it fluttering for days together or to use it with faded colours. It is common for flags to be hoisted at sunrise and hauled down at sunset.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISMAILI FLAG - Modern period Encyclopedia Topic

"Imam Hasan Ali Shah (1817-1881) arrived in India in 1842. He died and buried in Hasanabad, Bombay in 1881. He was succeeded by his son Imam Aga Ali Shah (1881-1885), who also died in Poona on August 17, 1885. His body in a bier was brought to Bombay, where it was temporarily enshrined in Hasanabad, Bombay for 64 days, and shipped for interment in Najaf. Mukhi Kassim Musa (d. 1896), the then estate agent was entrusted to carry the Imam's bier from Bombay to Najaf. He left behind a very important narrative of the journey of 25 days. He relates that the procession carrying the bier to the sea-port was started from Hasanabad on October 25, 1885. Describing the scene of the grand procession of ten thousand persons, he writes that, "Many persons, numbering 125 had lifted the plates of fruits and sweetmeats on heads in the procession. They were followed by another 125 Ismaili believers, carrying banners and muttering salawat with tears in eyes. They were followed by the special horses of Imam Aga Ali Shah, caparisoned in golden and silver. Behind them were six horses loaded with swords, and another six with that of the shields. Next followed five riders, and three among them held three big banners of Ali bin Abu Talib. These banners are taken out on special occasions" (p. 7).

The Ismailis formed different semi-military organizations in Bombay, such as the Kandi Mola Scout Troops came into existence at Bombay in 1915. The H.H. The Aga Khan Volunteer Corps existed in 1919. The volunteer corps in Hasanabad, Bombay was formed in 1920. Ladies volunteer corps was raised in Kandi Mola, Bombay in 1921 and at Khadak, Bombay in 1922. The scout group at Hasanabad also started in 1922. The first Ismaili Band was formed in 1926 and the Girl Guides Company also was erected in Khadak, Bombay in 1927. In sum, the community added certain tinge of bravery and manliness to its activities. These semi-military organizations were first in the community of their kind and proved highly beneficial. The foremost need of these institutions was to hoist and salute their own banner on the occasions of jubilations and festivity.

It will be very interesting to learn that when Imam Sultan Muhammad Shah made his first visit of East African countries in 1899, it appeared that the Ismailis mostly in the villages used the banners, having complete red ground, whereon the name of the Imam was written in white letters in English. The followers also decorated the steamer and the boat of the Imam with these banners. When the boat landed ashore, the news of the Imam's arrival was announced through the signals of the banners. The tradition of red banner was so popular among the Ismailis in East Africa, that they hoisted it on every occasion and festival on the Jamatkhanas. It cannot be ascertained by any source how the tradition of red banner came to be introduced in East Africa? The Ismailis who emigrated to East Africa mostly belonged to Kutchh, India, and we have a reason to believe that the tradition of red banner must have been originated in Kutchh and introduced in East Africa. While inspecting both oral and written sources available at our disposal, it however appears that there existed no such tradition in Kutchh. The question arises, how the Ismailis in East Africa started the tradition of red banner? It is however seen that when Imam Sultan Muhammad Shah visited East Africa for the first time in 1899, he was warmly welcomed, and the principal items or the decorations in the cities was the red banners of the Sultanate of Oman and Britain. When the Imam launched his next tour in 1905, the Ismailis living in the villages used red banners with the name of the Imam on it instead of the banners of the ruling authorities. It became a normal practice to hoist red banners on the Jamatkhana during the festive occasions as well as on the arrival of the Imam.

Wazir Kassim Ali Fateh Ali (1894-1971), the Kamadia of the Thana Jamatkhana in India had heard the tradition of the red banner in East Africa through different channels. It struck an idea in his mind that a similar tradition should be introduced in India. He consulted with different persons, who appreciated his noble idea. He however found different views to determine the colours of the flag. When no one came to a conclusion, it was finally resolved to refer the matter to the Imam in Europe.

On Thursday, April 28, 1927, the Thana Jamat commemorated the 50th Birthday of the Imam. On that occasion, the leaders and the members of the jamat held a grand assembly in the Jamatkhana and passed a historic resolution, which was also read in the Jamatkhana. Mukhi Itmadi Nazar Ali Hashim and Kamadia Kassim Ali Fateh Ali of Thana Jamatkhana sent the copy of the resolution through a telegram to the Imam in Europe. The Imam was highly delighted with the idea of introducing an Ismaili flag and approved green colour with a cross red stripe in it.

The above report was published in the weekly Ismaili (Bombay, 1927, p. 7) through an announcement on Sunday, June 19, 1927 that:- "The Thana jamat passed a resolution to celebrate the day as an Eid when our beloved Imam Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah may graciously bestow with the talika mubarak or a telegram upon the jamat. The whole jamat should attend with full strength when the talika mubarak is read in the Jamatkhana. It should be read before the jamat with due respect. (Further) on the day when the talika mubarak of Hazar Imam is conferred, the birthday of the Imam and on other festive occasions, our flag should be hoisted on the Jamatkhana. When the Mukhi & Kamadia of Thana Jamatkhana reverently asked for the above flag to the Imam in their telegram of congratulation during birthday, the Imam approved it with happiness, saying "The Thana jamat can use my green colour in the flag, with a red crossing stripe."

Thus, a flag dressing in green and red colours was designed within a short span of time. Its ground or field contained rich green colour with a red diagonal gushing out from left of the top-corner near staff down to the bottom-corner of the right side, making a red stripe crossing in the green flag.

On Sunday, the 18th Zilhaja, 1345/June 19, 1927 during the historic occasion of Eid al-Ghadir, the unfurling ceremony of the Ismaili flag had been performed for the first time on the Indian soil in the compound of the Thana Jamatkhana. On that occasion, H.H. The Aga Khan Volunteers Corps, the Ismaili Band and eminent persons participated. The ceremony began at 4.30 p.m. with an inauguration speech of Wazir Kassim Ali Fateh Ali. He, then unfurled the Ismaili flag with due honour on the Jamatkhana after march-past amid the enchanting tune of the Band, which certainly created a thrilling and sensational environment. Guard of honour was also accorded by the volunteers. Mr. Kader Hussain Merali Manji handed over the flag on behalf of the Thana Jamatkhana to Captain Pir Muhammad Madhani (1896-1959) and Vice-Captain A.J. Lakhpati (1884-1947), which they accepted on behalf of the Bombay Volunteer Corps. Then, Mr. Ismail Gala recited the famous poem of Nur Mohammad Javer before the audience. Mr. Kader Hussain Merali Manji, Haji Mohammad Fazal, Mohammad Abdullah, A.S. Sadruddin and Haji Mohammad Rahim delivered touching speeches. In short, the whole proceeding was performed with unbounded jubilation. On that occasion, the following telegraphic message of the Imam was read before the audience:-

London: 21/6/1927

Time : 10.50 a.m.

RECREATION, BOMBAY

CONVEY PATERNAL LOVE AND BLESSINGS THANA, AS NO ADDRESS ON THEIR CABLE. SEND THIS THROUGH YOU.

The next unfurling ceremony of the flag was performed in Andheri Jamatkhana, Bombay on Sunday, June 26, 1927 at 3.30 p.m. by the hands of Alijah Ismail Virji Madhani, the President of the Supreme Council for Kathiawar. On that occasion, the Imam sent the following telegraphic message:-

London: 29/6/1927

Time : 10.00 a.m.

CHILDREN. PATERNAL LOVE AND BEST BLESSINGS HAPPY OCCASION. MY TREASURER OPENED FLAG AT BOMBAY AND MY OFFICERS AT ANDHERI. VERY PLEASED HEAR THIS GOOD NEWS.

The third ceremony in succession was performed in Khadak Jamatkhana, Bombay on Monday, June 27, 1927 at 3.30 p.m. by the hands of Kamadia Kassim Ali Hasan Ali. The Imam sent the following message on that auspicious occasion:-

London: 1/7/1927

Time : 9.45 a.m.

CHILDREN. BOMBAY

CONVEY BEST BLESSINGS FOR SEVERAL ENTERTAINMENTS SENT BY MY TREASURER ON HAPPY OCCASION OF MY FLAG INSTALLATION.

Mukhi Laljibhai Devraj (1842-1930) had an honour to perform its unfurling ceremony at Bandra Jamatkhana, Bombay on July 4, 1927. The whole programme was organized with pomp and jubilation.

Soon afterwards, the unfurling ceremony had also taken place in Talaja Jamatkhana in Kathiawar on July 11, 1927 by Nazar Ali Dhanji Gheewala. It was performed at Dharka Jamatkhana on July 14, 1927 by Mukhi Alibhai Sunderji, in Dhoraji Jamatkhana on July 29, 1927 by the hands of Mukhi Pirbhai and Kamadia Mawji. It was also unfurled in Karachi on August 17, 1927 by Rai Alidina Ali Muhammad (1884-1952). The Panderkawda Jamatkhana performed unfurling ceremony on August 24, 1927 by the hands of President Khalfan Lalji. In Sind, it was unfurled at Hyderabad by Varas Karim Kassim (1878-1958) on November 24, 1927. The ceremony was also performed in Nairobi, Dar-es-Salam, Kampala, Rangoon, etc. The first hoisting ceremony in Gwadar Jamatkhana took place on April 12, 1928 with the hands of Mukhi Muhammad Abdullah Bachani (1927-1932). The ceremony inaugurated with the sound of bugles, and it was followed by musket-shots for 11 times. The ceremony was performed with the loud voice of Allaho-Akbar.

The Imam arrived Bombay from Europe on December 9, 1928, and when the above flag was presented before him, he became overwhelmed with joy to see it and said, "Excellent! This is my Flag". Hence, it became known as My Flag in the Ismaili community. In sum, the identity of these two colours together found a new lease of life with the creation of the Ismaili flag. The name "My Flag" had however been applied by the Imam himself in his message to the Khadak Jamatkhana, Bombay on June 27, 1927

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISMAILI FLAG - Post-Alamut period Encyclopedia Topic

The post-Alamut is the longest period in the Ismaili history, and so is most obscure and dark due to the dearth of the historical informations. It almost covers 580 years for 18 Imams, who lived in different villages and towns in Iran. They had no their own rule and as a result, no need was apparently felt for their banner.

Hitherto, we have surveyed that the banner or flag had been used mostly in the battlefields on different occasions and periods. Now, the period ahead was of peace, therefore, the outstanding services of the heroes were symbolized in different manners. The Ismaili flag reflects same massage to the followers through the agency of green and red colours.

It appears that the representation of the Zulfikar or two-edged sword of Ali bin Abu Talib had been the most common in the banners of the Iranian rules. The emblems of the lion and the sun rising behind it or a variety of colours or flags had been adopted along with the different symbols of the Prophet and his descendants. The Ismailis resided in different garbs according to the demand of the time and practiced taqiya, therefore, they generally said to have assumed their traditional green and red banners in their villages, where it was also popular in other classes of the people. It however appears that in Kahek, Anjudan and Shahr-i Babak, the green and red banners were flown mostly on the mausoleums of the Imams.

The Ismaili Pirs and Syeds were active in the Ismaili mission in India. Most of them composed the religious hymns (ginans) for the new converts. These ginans however contain the words nishan (emblem), jarad dajja (red banner), tambal nishan (trumpet and emblem), nejadhari (standard-bearer), etc.

Imam Gharib Mirza (1493-1496) had left Shahr-i Babak in Iran and settled in his new headquarters, called Anjudan. The scrutiny of the sources suggests that the Ismaili mission system after the fall of Alamut's rule was re-organized for the first time in Anjudan. The Ismaili missionaries used special green and red banners of small size in different regions to identify themselves before the local Ismailis. In some regions, special emblems in the banner were also included where they found no congenial atmosphere.

The Indian Ismailis were also fluttering big green and red banners during special occasions. It was a common practice to paint the boiled eggs with green and red colours on the day of Navroz. It suggests that the green and red had become the accepted colours among the Ismailis in India.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISMAILI FLAG - Pre-Islamic period Encyclopedia Topic

Warfare in pre-Islamic Arabia was waged regularly for a certain part of each year as an ordinary part of the routine of tribal life, the ostensible motive being the desire for plunder or revenge. In the Meccan oligarchy the clan of Abdul Dar of Qoraish enjoyed the privilege of holding the tribal standard. Before the advent of Islam, the Qoraish waged a war on another tribe; they received from the hands of Qassi (d. 480) the liwa, a piece of white cloth, which Qassi himself had attached to a lance. In those days, the banner of war, offensive or defensive was hoisted in the dar al-nadwah (council chamber); this was the chief prerogative of Qassi. The dar al-nadwah was a kind of town hall on the north of Kaba in Mecca. The champions who offered themselves for single combat wore distinctive signs on their armour, but nothing more specific is known of these signs or emblems. The Arab poets enjoyed to compare the flowers of the garden with the flags of different tribes, and also composed couplets to dignify the banners.

In Arabs, the principal offices in connection with the Kaba were five altogether, viz. sicaya and rifada (the exclusive privilege of supply of water and food to the pilgrims), kiyada (the command of the army), hijaba (the guardianship of Kaba), nadwa (the right of presidency of the council), and siva (the right of becoming standard bearer). Soon after the death of Abd Munaf, a family strife arose among his sons, on which account the offices were divided. Hashim (d. 510) was invested with the charge of sicaya and rifada, while the descendants of Abdul Dar retained the offices of kiyada, hijaba, nadwa and siva.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ISMAILI FLAG - Red colour - its special features Encyclopedia Topic

"Red (ahmar) is the colour of fire and blood. It is linked with vital force. It is gushing colour, hot and male, unlike green. Adam signifies red in Hebrew. Red (ahmar) is used only once in the Koran (35:27-8) in the plural form humr. The red sulphur (kibrit ahmar) of Islamic esotericism denotes Universal Man. Abdullah Numair narrates on the authority of al-Bari; who said, "I have never seen anyone more attractive and elegant in a red cloak than the Prophet" (Tabaqat, 2:534). Jabir b. Abdullah also narrates, "The Prophet put on his red sheet on the Eids and Fridays" (Ibid). Abu Juhaifah Wahab bin Abdullah relates: "I saw the Prophet in Mecca at Batha. He was in a tent made of red leather. Bilal came out with water, which the Prophet had made his ablutions. Then he came out wearing a red mantle."

According to Ahadith-i Mathnawi (Tehran, 1955, p. 299), the Prophet once said, "Red rose is a part of God's glory." While studying the colour symbolism of the Sufi garments, it is learnt that red was preferred by the Badawiyya in Egypt.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral