Ismaili Dictionary & Encyclopedia
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Tentation, attache. "DOUNIYA NA HIRaS..." (tentations du monde)
Heritage Dictionary of Ismailism, entry #580general Hiras / hirsaEncyclopedia TopicGreed
Various Sources HirdaEncyclopedia TopicDiamond
Various Sources His father is mine, so is his Lord. While my host is the strange and far.Encyclopedia TopicEncyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral Historic Cities Support Programme (HCSP)Encyclopedia TopicThe Trust's most recent initiative is the Historic Cities Support Programme (HCSP). It was established to promote the conservation and re-use of building and public spaces in historic cities in ways that can catalyze social, economic and cultural development. In HCSO's approach, the restoration and rehabilitation of buildings and public spaces cannot be conceived apart from broader processes of community development. Its project briefs go beyond technical restoration to address the questions of re-use and community revitalization. The first project to be completed under this programme was the restoration of the fourteenth century Zafra House in the old Arab quarter of Granada, Spain, now the home for the Centre for Historic Studies of Granada and its Kingdom. It also involved in revitalization projects in four very different settings in the Islamic world: the Old Stone Town of Zanzibar, Baltit Fort in Hunza, Samarkand and Cairo.
On the island of Zanzibar, a HCSP project aimed to link the preservation of the Old Stone Town's unique architectural heritage with the revival of the Zanzibar economy through tourism projects carried out by the Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development. HCSP's efforts in Zanzibar included both the restoration of a landmark building on the seafront, the Old Dispensary, and the production of a conservation and development plan for the Old Stone Town.
The town of Baltit, Hunza in the Northern Areas of Pakistan, is the site of a similar attempt to combine conservation and economic development
Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral HISTORY, HISTORIOGRAPHY, HISTORIANSEncyclopedia TopicThe word history is derived from the Latin historia meaning narrative of past event, account, tale or story. The synonymous word in German is geschichte means occurrence. The earliest known historical writing comes from the old kingdom of Egypt. One surviving fragment is the Palermo Stone (about 2600 B.C.) dealing with the annals of the early dynasties of Pharaohs.
History is the product of historians' works in reconstructing the flow of events from the original written traces or sources into a narrative form. History is regarded a branch of humanities or as a social science because it is a mirror reflecting the past events. History in its broadest sense is the record of everything, which that ever happened. It is a philosophical teaching by example and bears a note of warning with both of its eyes that is geography and chronology. Sometimes it is all fact and not very seldom all fiction but still greater than truth. It is a voice for ever-sounding across the centuries, many oft-repeated laws of right and wrong. History is all time, all correct, record of the destiny of man on the tablets of eternity. History fosters a partnership with the dead, and the dead become alive through history. It also serves as a therapy for undue obsession with the present, and this may help to liberate one from being bound excessively by time.
John Huizings writes in Philosophy and History (London, 1936, p. 9) that, "History is the intellectual form in which a civilization renders account itself of its past." B. Croce writes in History as the story of Liberty (London, 1941, p. 19) that, "History consists essentially in seeing the past through the eyes of the present and in the light of its problem, and that the main work of the historian is not to record but to evaluate; for if he does not evaluate, how can he know what is worth recording."
Divisions of History
"The modern historians divided the history into following divisions: -
(1) Pre-historic (5500-4000 B.C.), Proto-historic (4000-3200 B.C.), Historic (3200-800 B.C.), and Colonization Age (8th century B.C.).
(2) Dark Age (410-1453 A.D.):- Early (410-1377 A.D.) and Later (1378-1453 A.D.)
(3) Modern Age (since 1454 A.D.):- Early (1494-1600 A.D.), Later (1600-1789 A.D.), and Present (since 1800 A.D.)"
The Dark Age (410-1453 A.D.) & Islamic History
The Dark Age is widely known as the Middle Age, and was coined as media tempora (middle time) during the 16th century. The Middle Age is also known as Medieval Age. By the end of 17th century, it was also called medium aevum (middle period). The Middle Age began with the fall of the Roman Empire in 410 A.D., which includes the Islamic history as follows: - The Prophet (571-632 A.D.), Pious Caliphs (632-661 A.D.), Umayyads of Damascus (661-750 A.D.), Abbasids (750-1258 A.D.), Umayyads of Spain (756-1027 A.D.), Fatimids (909-1160 A.D.) and Crusades (1095-1270 A.D.)
Islamic concept of History
"According to the Koran, “We tell you stories of the prophets, which will strengthen your heart, and thus bring you the truth, and exhortation and a memorial for the believers” (11:120) and “Say (O’Prophet) travel through the earth to find out surely the consequences of those who denied the truth” (3:42). Of particular significance is the repeated reference to asatir al-awwalin means stories of the ancients, a term occurs nine times in the Koran (6:25, 8:31, 16:24, 23:83, 25:5, 27:68, 46:17, 68:15, 83:13). The word asatir corresponds exactly to Latin historia. The word asatir is derived from satar meaning to write and therefore asatir also means record.
The Arabs do not seem to have a word for history in pre-Islamic period. They had a few stories without any concept of history. They however held the idea of ethnology. The advent of the Greek literature in Arabian territories also made no impact in the field of history. The Arabs developed a sense of history as a result of the Prophet’s mission."
The two technical terms by which the concept of history is commonly denoted in Arabic are al-akhbar and al-tarikh. The word akhbar (pl. of khabar) means informations, while the word tarikh means date or era. The Islamic calendar began under caliph Umar, and the word tarikh also introduced from 643 A.D. Later, the word tarikh acquired the meaning of historical work and afterwards that of history. The Arabs produced many important historians, who had sense of history and defined it in following words: - “History refers to events that are peculiar to a particular age or race” (Ibn Khaldun). “History gives information about what once took place in the world” (Makrizi). “History is a science of learning which investigates time-sections and circumstances prevailing in them.” (al-Kafiyaj). “History is a science which involves the knowledge of the condition of the ancients” (al-Marasi).
The Rasail Ikhwan as-Safa for the first time classified the sciences including history. It figures among the practical science, which comprises (a) reading and writing (b) lexicography and grammar (c) commercial counting (d) poetry and prosody (e) kinds of divination (f) magic and alchemy (g) profession and crafts (h) commerce, agriculture and animal husbandry (i) biography and history (ilm as-siyar wal akhbar).
Muslim Historiography – its early development
The term historiography means writing of history or written history. J. Sanford firstly coined this term in 1597, resembling the Arabic word ilm al-tarikh. The Koranic phrases asatir al-awwalin (writing of the ancient) also gives notion of historiography, vide 6:25, 8:31, 16:24-26, 23:83-85, 25:5-6, 27:68-70, 46:17, 68:15, 83:13, etc.
The Muslims knew no importance of history at early stage, and could not differentiate the tales, miracles, biography and history with one another. They made their acquaintance with the systematic classification of the branches of science being inspired mostly from Rasail Ikhwan as-Safa. Yet the Arabs did not assign a special place to history.
Sources of Muslim Historiography
"The later Muslim historians acquired their information from the following sources:- Sira (biography), Maghazi (expedition), Ansab (genealogies), Tabaqat (classical sketches), Akhbar (information) and Tarikh (annals).
The sira (biography) is the first brick of the Muslim historiography, which is accessible in the traditions (riwayat) or the hadiths of the Prophet. Each hadith contains a chain, from its originator to its last transmitter. The whole chain is called isnad (supporting), while the actual wording of the hadith is called matn (text). The awail (evidence) of the isnad is classified into three groups (a) pre-Islamic narratives (b) from Adam onward (c) historical facts."
The historical facts had been collected from the hadiths on the above basis. The earliest famous collectors of awail (evidence) were Tamim al-Dari (d. 40/660), Ubayd bin Umayr (d. 67/687), Tabarani (d. 361/971), Abu Hilal al-Askari (d. 395/1005), etc. M.G. Rasul writes in Muslim Historiography (Lahore, 1968, p. 49) that, “In that period of historical development, history was closely linked with hadith and followed in fact the traditionalist method.”
Another important point giving the idea of history-writing by the Muslims was the conquest of the countries. Description of these conquests and military expeditions came to be called as maghazi (derived from ghazwah means battle). The most notables among them were Urwah bin Zubair (d. 94/713), Wahab bin Munabbih (d. 97/717), Asim bin Umar Qatada (d. 119/738), Shihab al-Zuhri (d. 124/742), Aban bin Uthman (d. 201/816), , etc.
The ansab (pl. of nasab) means genealogies. The Arabs had good memory of recording the genealogies of their ancestors, whose factual notion was also the source of history.
The term tabaqat mean layer or class, which was used in the sense of generation to collect data of the origin of dynastic biography. The first to write on the dynasty i.e., the Abbasids was Muhammad bin Saleh bin Mihran bin al-Nattah (d. 119/738), but according to Fihrist (p. 134) by Ibn Nadim (d. 385/995) that Awanah bin Hakim al-Kalbi (d. 150/767) was the first to write the history of the Umayyads.
The akhbari were the compilers of akhbar (informations), who drew materials largely from the traditions and wrote direct and simple events. The famous among them were Awana bin Hakim (d. 147/764), Abu Mikhnaf (d. 157/774), Saif bin Umar and al-Madaini (d. 224/839).
Muslim Historiography between 9th and 15th century
Bernard Lewis writes in Historians of the Middle East (London, 1963, p. 3) that, “The first lesson of history – of universal history – was received by the Muslims in the shape of religious teachings and they proved themselves worthy students of the subject.” Islamic history is branch of human knowledge in which the Arabic language, not only seems the pioneer but the proudest also. Westenfeld enumerated some five hundred and ninety historians who flourished in the first millennium after the Hijra. Celebi ibn Abdullah (d. 460/1067) counted thirteen hundred historical works. And yet we unluckily do not have any book on Islamic history like Mommsen’s History of Rome. It is true that many books have been written by Moller, Brockelmann, Huart and Philip K. Hitti, but most of these books deal with the political matter of the Islamic world, and has endeared to its data the individual only and not the mankind.
Renowned historians contributed in the Muslim historiography in Arabic are Ibn Muqaffa (d. 139/757), Ibn Ishaq (d. 145/768), al-Waqidi (d. 207/823), Ibn Hisham (d. 218/833), Qutaidah (d. 268/882), Baladhuri (d. 280/892), Yaqubi (d. 284/898), Dinawari (d. 285/897), Tabari (d. 312/923), Masudi (d. 324/956), al-Musabbihi (d. 420/1029), Miskawayd (d. 421/1030), Utabi (d. 426/1035), Ibn al-Sabi (d. 448/1056), Ibn Asakir (d. 571/1176), Yaqut (d. 626/1229), Ibn Athir (d. 631/1234), Ibn Jawzi (d. 597/1200), Ibn Khallikan (d. 680/1282), Abul Fida (d. 732/1331), Ibn Khaldun (d. 808/1406), Mikrizi (d. 845/1442), etc.
The famous Persian historians were Juvaini (d. 681/1283), Rashiduddin (d. 718/1318), Hamiduddin Mustawfi (d. 749/1349), Mirkhund (d. 904/1498), Khawandamir (d. 944/1538), etc.
The notables Turks historians were Kamal Pashazade (d. 940/1534), Tashkopruzade (d. 968/1561), Haji Khalia (d. 1068/1657) and Munajjim Bashi (d. 1113/1702).
Critical study of the Historiography
Indeed history as a science is a new concept, which took its birth among the foggy platitudes of the olden historians and its birthday falls somewhere in the 19th century. The new school of history is determined to arrive at every or any historical truth, here, there and everywhere. Absolute truth may not be obtainable easily in history but the more we have it the more real and living it becomes. Therefore we, today, insist upon a scientific treatment of it. The modern scientific historian looks upon history as dealing with all aspects of human life and activity. The history of any nation or society must be something mobile and continually evolving and it should not overlook the important fact that man makes history under special circumstances.
The historical documents mean the sources or traces, which are classified as under:- ((a) Sources: It includes Traditions and Remains. The Traditions are Oral, Written and Pictorial. (b) Sources: The other type of it includes Primary, Secondary and Tertiary.
The method employed in studying sources is the historical method. It embraces two kinds of operations: (1) Criticism, and (2) Synthesis.
The criticism seeks to determine character of a source. It lays the foundation for a rational belief that this or that particular event actually happened. It produces those pieces of information, which are described as “the facts of history.” The process of criticism, offering to evaluate the sources and to determine the fact, follows the synthesis. Hence, as a scientist, a historian must have a critical frame of mind, and as an artist, he needs literary skills, and as a philosopher, he must employ his faculties of criticism and objective judgment in order to derive nearest approximation to the actual truth about the past.
The primary sources include records, documents in archives, letters, eye-witness reporting, diaries, contemporary materials, verses, coins or inscriptions. The secondary sources are accessible in the form of scholarly articles, monographs or specialized books. The tertiary sources are in the form of text-books, popularized events and encyclopaedia.
Audio-Visual Aids in the teaching of History
"Keeping in view the dearth of trained teachers and considering the quality of text-books, it seems all very necessary that we should resort to the modern method o teaching history. The benefits of taking into account all the audio-visual aids are the following:- (a) The modern visual and auditory aids make the methodology easy and more meaningful. (b) History being a record of the dead past, the reviving of which could only be enacted only by appealing through visual or auditory aids. (c) The students feel attracted to the lesson and thus not only learn better but also remember the lesson better. (d) The use of such aids creates activity, action and fun, which is psychologically conductive to the process of learning and biologically dear and near to the students. (e) It provides purposeful and meaningful experiences, and save the lengthy talks and round about methods. (f) These aids provide a chance to be the active participants of the lesson in hand and cut at the very root of passivity.
The different kinds of audio-visual aids in this connection, which may be named, here as :- (1) Historical monuments, building, bridges and pillars. (2) Coins and postage stamps. (3) Statues, models, sculpture. (4) Exhibits, charts, pictures, diagrams, sketches and posters. (5) Old historical dresses, costumes and parchments. (6) Films, gramophone records and slides and tape-recorded lessons. (7) Dramatization and historical pageants. (8) Field trips, excursions to historical places, and (9) Time-lines, time-charts, graphs with dates and decades."
Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral HitEncyclopedia TopicHere, in this world
Various Sources HiteEncyclopedia TopicHere
Various Sources HiyariEncyclopedia TopicBeloved, very dear
Various Sources Ho ho kartaEncyclopedia TopicBy becoming
Various Sources HoeEncyclopedia TopicWill be
Various Sources HoeseEncyclopedia TopicWill become
Various Sources Hoi gayaEncyclopedia Topiclt happened
Various Sources Hoi hoiEncyclopedia TopicWill happen
Various Sources HOJIRENounO Vivant!, ô fidèle. Expression employée dans les ginans pour s'adresser aux croyants: "HOJIRE PRAnRI.."
Heritage Dictionary of Ismailism, entry #581general HojoEncyclopedia TopicMay
Various Sources Hole holeEncyclopedia TopicLight weighted, smoothly
Various Sources HONEYMOON LODGEEncyclopedia TopicMuhammadi Tekri or Tekri (hill), a famous historical site, where Imam Sultan Muhammad Shah was born, which is generally known as Honeymoon Lodge. It is situated on the eastern outskirts of the city of Karachi at plot no. F.T.N. 3/1. It is an old fashioned, but spacious house, perilously perched on the top of the hillock at Korangi Road in the Defence Housing Society area, Karachi. This building was built soon after the British occupation of Sind in 1840. It was made available to the high government officials for their residence, known as Honeymoon Hall in 1841.
This property was purchased by the British Government in 1859 on account and expense of the Kolahpur State, as a residence for Cheema Saheb, the ex-ruler of the Kolahpur, a city and district of Maharashtra state, India, which was occupied by the British in 1792. Later, the vendor of this property was Mr. Edwin Bray, a contractor, who in 1860 obtained a lease of the site, and named it, Bray Cliff Honeymoon Lodge. The purchaser on this account was a certain Mr. Noonan, who afterwards sold it ultimately to Imam Hasan Ali Shah.
Varas Basaria Fadhu (1848-1918) is reported to have built a residence of Imam Hasan Ali Shah in Honeymoon Lodge soon after its registration on January 5, 1876. No water supply existed in the location, therefore, it was procured in the town. Ismail, the maternal grandfather of Bana Bhula Ali used to bring two skin bags of water on donkey. Later on, the Ismaili women from Garden area daily brought water with Ladak Damani (d. 1944).
When Imam Aga Ali Shah inherited its ownership, he used it as his residence. Later on, Imam Sultan Muhammad Shah was born to Lady Aly Shah here on Friday, November 2, 1877 at 5.30 p.m. in the right corner room facing the east side. When the family of the Imam shifted from Karachi to Bombay in 1882, this place was turned into the royal guest house for their occasional visits to Karachi between 1895 and 1951.
Honeymoon Lodge is spread over a contour area of 18.5 acres on a hilltop at a height of 111' from the road level. There is an unmetalled road leading to the summit of the hill. There is also another small hilltop at the height of 94'. On the summit of this hill there was an octagonal wooden umbrella, a flight of stairs leading to the top, where one can get a panoramic view of the city. The principal hilltop covers an area of 788.62 square yards, the servant quarters and the chowkidar quarters, including the main building covers an area of 1066.85 square yards. The main building is so oriented that it faces the south west direction, allowing the sea breeze to cool the interior without any artificial mechanical cooling system. There are over 2500 tress already planted, covering the hilly terrain create a relaxing atmosphere. Strips of lawns have also been developed at the entrance on the hilltop near the main building. Accessible records have it that this building has undergone structural changes over a period of years. The first changes were effected in 1905 when the entire edifice was demolished except one room, which was kept intact, where Imam Sultan Muhammad Shah was born. This time the building was rebuilt in a colonial style with a gabled roof.
In 1920, Wazir Rahim Basaria (1885-1927) renovated it with his own expenses of Rs. 50,000/- Its new furniture was prepared in Calcutta by Bana Bula and Suleman Mukhi Ghulam Hussain Parpiya of Calcutta. The Imam took its visit on April 10, 1920 and gave it a new name as Highland. Whenever Imam Sultan Muhammad Shah visited Karachi, the site was to be renovated simply for the purpose of Imam's lodging during next 30 years (1920- 1950).
In 1951, the Imam entrusted Wazir Dr. Pir Muhammad Hoodboy (1905-1956) to convert the Honeymoon Lodge into the Convalescent Home. This time, the building underwent further physical changes. The gabled roof was replaced by a R.C.C. slab, retaining the load bearing stone walls. On its rear side, rooms were added including two kitchens, bathrooms and extension of the veranda. A porch was added on the front side. These changes were done to facilitate the conversion of this place from a residence to a Convalescent Home. Wazir Dr. Pir Muhammad operated its supervision on behalf of the Aga Khan Health Board.
The Imam is reported to have told to Wazir Dr. Pir Muhammad to give it a new name of "Mahdi Convalescent Home" in loving memory of the meritorious services of Mukhi Mahdi, the son of Hasan Ali Laljibhai Devraj of Bombay.
The Imam gave an audience to the donors at the bungalow of Wazir Ibrahim Manji on January 26, 1952 and blessed, emphasizing to complete the project before the occasion of Platinum Jubilee. The project of Mahdi Convalescent Home at length completed and inaugurated on September 14, 1953 by Muhammad Ali Bogra, the Prime Minister of Pakistan. In his welcome address, Wazir Dr. Pir Muhammad Hoodbhoy said, "This Convalescent Home is an additional gift of the Aga Khan, which provides the recovery and energy to the patients of old diseases or who have undergone major operations, an important location far from the dense population of the city."
According to the old records of its ownership deed with the District Commissioner (inquiry register no. 375), the official name of Honeymoon Lodge from Honeymoon Hall was changed in 1951, covering an area of 86495 square yards. Prince Sadruddin inherited the property under Register Gift Deed No. 66 on July 21, 1951. It was subsequently purchased by the Present Imam from him on June 26, 1968 under Registered Sale Deed No. 655.
The Present Imam summoned a grand darbar in Gymkhana, Karachi on December 13, 1964 and celebrated his 28th birth anniversary with the followers. On that occasion, Wazir Amir Ali Fancy (1914-1978), the President of the Federal Council for Pakistan, humbly requested the Imam that the jamats of Pakistan wished to build a house for their Imam at Honeymoon Lodge. The Imam was delighted and accepted the offer. When the Imam made his farman on that occasion, he said, "I was most deeply happy to know that the jamat of Pakistan has made it possible for me to have a house on the site where my grandfather was born. I am deeply attached with the site and I look forward very much indeed to live in there and to spending many happy, deeply happy days, of my life in a new house there. I would like my jamats to know that this is a matter of my heart. It has nothing to do with the fact that I will have a house, it has to do with the fact that my love and affection for jamats is also reflected with the love which I had for my father and grandfather."
The Imam made a visit of the Mahdi Convalescent Home on November 11, 1967 with his architects and Wazir Dr. Habib Patel, the Chairman of the Aga Khan Central Health Board for Pakistan. The Imam made an inspection and climbed upto the roof of the main premises and observed its vicinity. After making a discussion with the architects, the Imam told to Dr. Habib Patel to vacate it within two months and if possible by one month. The Imam also directed to the Chairman to take a bungalow on hire. The patients were shifted in a bungalow at Mohammad Ali Housing Society, near Karsaz, Drigh Road Bridge, Karachi. The evacuation took place at the end of May, 1970. It means that the Mahdi Convalescent Home was closed down and it remained in a dilapidated condition. Interface cracks are noticed partly due to a bomb blast during the Indo-Pakistan War of 1971, resulting also dislocation and detachment of window frames from the masonry.
During the historical Birth Centenary of Imam Sultan Muhammad Shah on November 2, 1977, the site was illuminated, decorated and opened for the Ismaili visitors.
Soon after the Imam's visit in 1994 to Pakistan, the site was purged with filth, animal's bones, etc. at the feet of the hills. Cracks were cemented and repaired. Rooms were plastered and colored. Gardens were grown with new plantation.
On October 27, 2000, the Imam visited the site during his visit in Pakistan.
Since it has been extensively rebuilt and renovated it has almost lost its original character. It is very important to modernize the city, but care should be taken that such a transformation does not destroy the city's heritage.
HORSE RACING [ see SIBAK AL-KHAYL ]
Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral HONORARY DEGREES Encyclopedia TopicNovember 30, 1967 : Given honorary Doctorate of Law (Honoris Causa) by Peshawar University.
February 6, 1970 : Honorary Degree of Doctor of Laws was conferred by Sind University, Jamshoro
November 1, 1983 : Honorary Degree of the Doctorate of Laws McGill University.
May 15, 1987 : Conferred with an Honorary Degree of Doctor of Laws (LLD) by McMaster University at Hamilton
October 11, 1989 : Awarded an honorary degree of Doctorate of Literature in Education from the University of London (Logan Hall) by Her Royal Highness, Princess Anne, Chancellor of the University.
November 30, 1993 : Awarded Honorary Degree of Doctor of Laws (LL.D) from the University of Wales by the Chancellor of the University, the Prince of Wales.
May 27, 1996 : Invested with the honorary degree of LL.D by Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island.
June 18, 2004 : University of Toronto confers honorary degree of Doctor of Laws.
June 25, 2005 : The American University, Beirut conferred an Honorary Doctorate in Human Letters.
Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral HONORARY MEMBERSHIP Encyclopedia Topic"July, 1981 : Awarded "Honorary Membership" of Pakistan Medical Association.
February 1970 : Pakistan army paid an honour of making Honorary Colonel of the 6th Lancers.
February 15, 1981 : Honorary Membership awarded by Pakistan Medical Association, Sind.
1985 : The College of Physicians and Surgeons of Pakistan conferred the honorary fellowship of the College of Physicians and Surgeons.
Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral HonsEncyclopedia TopicDesires
Various Sources HosiyaEncyclopedia TopicWill be
Various Sources HotEncyclopedia TopicHappens
Various Sources HotaEncyclopedia TopicIn becoming
Various Sources HOUJOUR (HOUZOUR)NounEn présence de. (HAZaR = présent). g.22
Heritage Dictionary of Ismailism, entry #584general HOUKaMNounOrdre, commandement. V. aMR.
Heritage Dictionary of Ismailism, entry #583general HovesiEncyclopedia TopicWill be
Various Sources HuadaEncyclopedia TopicBecame
Various Sources Hud / HunEncyclopedia TopicNow
Various Sources HUDAIBIA, TREATY OFEncyclopedia Topic"In 6/628, the Prophet marched from Medina with 1400 Muslims for the purpose of performing pilgrimage in Mecca. They went unarmed, clad in the ritual dresses. When this peaceful caravan approached its destination, tidings came that the Meccans were bent on mischief, and might stop their entry into the town by force. So, the Prophet halted his followers at a place, called Hudaibia, and his men encamped round a well. From here he sent a message to the Qoraish of Mecca, saying that, "We have come on a peaceful and religious mission. We have come only to perform the sacred pilgrimage. We desire neither bloodshed nor war, and we shall be glad if the Meccans agree to a truce for a limited period." When the Muslim messenger was sent to Qoraish, he failed to return, so another was dispatched. The enemies killed his mount and he did not return either. Finally, the Prophet sent one of his Companions, Uthman to negotiate with the Qoraish. He too was detained and to provoke the Muslims, the Qoraish engineered a rumour that he had been slain.
So, the Prophet collected all his followers and asked them to swear that if God demanded of them the supreme sacrifice they would lay down their lives without demur. One by one they came and touched his hand and swore, to die willingly, if such was the will of God. This oath or pledge became famous in the annals of Islam as Baiyt al-Ridwan (the pledge of God's pleasure). The Meccans heard of this and were afraid. Instead of directly attacking the pilgrim party as they originally intended, they now sent a messenger, a man named Suhail, to negotiate with the Prophet. He presented him with four demands on behalf of the Qoraish, as follows:- (a) The Muslims should return to Medina without performing pilgrimage. (b) They would be permitted to perform pilgrimage in the following year, but would not be allowed to stay in Mecca beyond three days with their traveller-arms, namely, their swords in sheathes. (c) They would not take any Muslim resident of Mecca with them to Medina nor forbid any Muslim from taking up his residence in Mecca, if he so desired. (d) If any Meccan went to Medina, then Muslims would return him to Mecca, but if any Muslim went to Mecca, he would not be returned to Medina.
The Meccans deliberately made their terms as rigorous and provocative as they could, but the Prophet refused to be provoked. As always he wanted peace not bloodshed, therefore he accepted all the terms with all the hardships and all the humiliation they implied. This treaty is known as the Treaty of Hudaibia. It was one of the most outstanding events in the life of the Prophet. According to R.V.C. Bodley in The Messenger (London, 1946, p. 257), "In point of fact, that the treaty was Mohammad's masterpiece of diplomacy. It was a triumph." Tor Andrae writes in Mohammed the Man and his Faith (London, 1936, p. 229) that, "The self-control which Mohammed revealed at Hodaibiya, his ability to bear occasional humiliation in unimportant issues, in order to achieve an exalted goal, shows that he was a person of unique ability."
This pact was the product of profound political wisdom and farsightedness. It was the first time after several wars that the Meccans acknowledged that the Prophet was an equal rather than a mere rebel or a runaway tribesman. It was the first time that Mecca recognized the Islamic state that was rising in Arabia. With it was terminated the struggle between the Muslims of Medina and the Qoraish of Mecca, which had extended over nineteen years, and had, after the migration, assumed the character of an armed conflict. By virtue of the truce, peace had at last been established, and the major difficulty in the way of peaceful propagation of Islam had been removed. Henceforward, Islam began to spread rapidly in the greater part of Arabia. Some estimate of the rate of this progress might be made on the basis of the number of Muslims who were present with the Prophet at Hudaibia, which was just short of 1400, and the number that accompanied him two years later during the conquest of Mecca, which was 10,000. This is eloquent testimony that the attraction of Islam lie in its spiritual power and not in armed conflict. As soon as this pact was solemnly concluded by the two parties, the tribe of Khazao entered an alliance with Medina and that of Banu Bakr with the Meccans.
Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral HUDUDEncyclopedia TopicThe penal law of Islam is called hudud in the hadith and fiqh books. This word is the plural of hadd, which means prevention, hindrance, restraint, prohibition, and hence a restrictive ordinance, or statute, of God, respecting things lawful and things unlawful. In Islamic fiqh, the word hudud is limited to punishments for crimes mentioned in the Koran or the hadith, while other punishments left to the discretion of the jurists are spoken of as ta'zir (chastisement). The word ta'zir is derived from the verb azar means prevent, reform or respect. The verb is used in its first and second meanings in the Koran (5:12, 7:157, 48:9). In the terminology of the jurists, ta'zir is a punishment aimed firstly at preventing a criminal from committing further crimes, and secondly, at reforming him. The Koran laid down the principle from which the ta'zir punishment is said to have deduced.
Chastisement and punishment correspond to several Arabic terms are used in the Koran, i.e., adhab (over 350 times), nakal (4 times), uqaba (26 times), and jaza (over 100 times) with their cognates. The Koran does not use other expressions to convey the same meaning. The word adhab means any type of burdensome pain, nakal means prevent, deter or to give exemplary punishment, uqaba means various forms of punishment, jaza carries the significance of "just deserts" i.e., the deserved consequence of one's action.
It should be pointed out that all violations of Divine limits in a general sense are not punishable; punishment is inflicted only in those cases in which there is violation of other people's right. For instance, neglect of prayers is not punishable. The punishable crimes in Islamic law are those which affect society; and those spoken of in the Koran are murder, dacoit or highway robbery, theft, adultery or fornication (zina) and accusation of adultery. The Koran lays down a general law for the punishment of offences in the following words: "And the recompense of evil (sayyi'a) is punishment (sayyi'a) proportionate thereto, but whoever forgives and amends, he shall have his reward from God" (42:40). Similar instructions as to the punishment of offenders are given elsewhere in the Koran: "And if you punish (aqabtum), then punish (aqibu) with the like of that with which you were afflicted; but if you are patient, it will certainly be best for those who are patient" (16:126); "And he who punishes evil (aqaba) with the like of that with which he has been afflicted (uqiba) and he has been oppressed, God will certainly aid him" (22:60); "Whoever acts aggressively (i'tada) against you, inflict injury (i'tadu) on him" (2:194).
Punishment for murder
Undoubtedly, the greatest crime known to society is qatl, or taking away one's life. It is a crime denounced in the early Meccan chapters: "And do not kill the soul which God has forbidden except for the requirements of justice" (17:33, 6:152), "And they who….do not slay the soul which God has forbidden except in the requirements of justice…..and he who does this shall find a requital of sin; the chastisement shall be doubled to him on the day of resurrection, and he shall abide therein in abasement" (25:68-69).
The punishment of murder is however prescribed in a Medinan chapter: "O'you who believe! retaliation (qisas) is prescribed for you in the matter of the slain; the free for the free, and the slave for the slave and the female for the female, but if any remission is made to any one by his (aggrieved) brother, then prosecution (for the blood-wit) should be made according to usage, and payment should be made to him in a good manner; this is an alleviation from your Lord and a mercy; and whoever exceeds the limit after this he shall have a painful chastisement. And there is life for you in the law of retaliation, O'men of understanding, that you may guard yourselves" (2:178-179).
The word qisas, rendered as retaliation, is derived from qassa meaning he cut it or he followed his track in pursuit, and mutilating for mutilating. The law of qisas among the Israelites extended to all these cases, but the Koran has expressly limited it to cases of murder (fi-qatla). It speaks of retaliation in wounds as being an ordinance of the Mosaic law (5:45), but it is nowhere prescribed as the law for the Muslims, who are required to observe it only in the case of the slain (2:178). In some hadith, it is no doubt mentioned that the Prophet ordered retaliation in some cases of wounds, but this was in all likelihood due to the fact that he followed the earlier law until he received an express commandment to the contrary.
The law of retaliation in murder cases is followed by the word "the free for the free, the slave for the slave and the woman for the woman," which have sometimes been misunderstood as meaning that if a free man has been murdered, a free man should be murdered in his place and so on. The very word qisas, which requires that the murderer should be murdered, and not an innocent man falsify this. The words were meant to abolish an old Arab custom, for the Arabs before Islam used to insist, when the person killed was of noble descent, upon the execution of others besides the murderer. So it was made clear that whoever it might be, a free man or a slave or a woman, the murderer himself was to be slain.
An alleviation is however allowed in case the person who suffers from the death of the murdered man makes a remission, and is satisfied with diya or blood money.
Another case in which blood money takes place of a death sentence is that of unintentional killing. The Koran says: "And it does not behoove a believer to kill a believer except by mistake, and whoever kills a believer by mistake, he should free a believing slave, and blood-money should be paid to his people unless they remit it as alms, but if he be from a tribe hostile to you and he is a believer, the freeing of a believing slave suffices; and if he is from a tribe between whom and you there is a covenant, the blood-money should be paid to his people along with the freeing of a believing slave." (4:92)
Murder of a non-Muslim
It may be here noted that by the hostile tribe, spoken of in the above quotation, is meant a tribe at war with the Muslim state. The murder of a non-Muslim living under a Muslim state or in a friendly non-Muslim state, is punishable in exactly the same way as the murder of a Muslim. The Prophet is reported to have said: "Whoever kills a mu'ahad (a non-Muslim living under the protection of a Muslim state), he shall not perceive the odour of paradise, and its odour is perceivable from a distance of forty years' journey" (Bukhari, 87:29). Thus, even from a purely religious point of view, not the least distinction is made between the murderer of a Muslim and non-Muslim, and therefore any distinction in their temporal punishment is out of question. And where the Koran speaks of a murderer, it always speaks of the murderer of a nafs (person), and not of a Muslim: "Whoever kills any one unless it be for manslaughter or mischief in the land, it is as though he slew all men" (5:32). In fact, the right of non-Muslims in a Muslim state are in all respects on a par with those of Muslims, so much so that Muslims are required even to fight in their defence (Bukhari, 56:174); and the Prophet is reported to have said: "Their property is like our property and their blood is like our blood." According to another report: "The property of the mu'ahads is not lawful for the Muslims." (Masnad, 4:89)
Alleviation of punishment in murder cases
Hadith speaks of cases of murder in which the murderer's intention is doubtful and in these cases too, blood money is to be paid (Abu Daud, 38:18, 25). And where the murderer could not be discovered, blood money was paid from the state treasury (Bukhari, 87:21). There seems no reported case in which the murderer may have been imprisoned in case of unintentional murder, but the alleviation of punishment in such cases is clearly provided for in the Koran. The form of alleviation spoken is the payment of blood money, but the right of the jurist or of the state to give that alleviation any other form is not negatived.
Punishment for decoity
Another crime for which capital punishment may be awarded, is dacoit. In the Koran, dacoit is spoken of as waging war against God and His apostle: "The punishment of those who wage war against God and His apostle and strive to make mischief (fasad) in the land is only this, that they should be put to death, or crucified, or their hands and their feet should be cut off on opposite side, or they should be imprisoned; this shall be as a disgrace for them in this world and in the hereafter they shall have a grievous chastisement" (5:33). It has been accepted by the commentators that dacoits and murderers who create disorder in a settled state of society, are referred to in this verse. The punishment prescribed is of four kinds, which shows that the punishment to be inflicted in any particular case would depend upon the circumstances of the case. If murderer has been committed in the course of dacoit, the punishment would be the execution of the culprit, which may take the form of crucifixion if the offence is so heinous or the culprit has caused such terror in the land that the leaving of his body on the cross is necessary as a deterrent. Where the dacoits have committed excesses, one of their hands and feet may be cut off. In less serious cases of dacoit, the punishment may be only imprisonment.
Punishment for theft
The word satiqa means taking away other's property secretly. Thus, theft is the next punishable crime spoken in the Koran: "And as for the man who steals and the woman who steals, cut off their hands as a punishment for what they have done, an exemplary punishment from God, and God is Mighty, Wise. But whoever repents after his iniquity and reforms himself, God will turn to him mercifully; for God is Forgiving, Merciful" (5:38-39).
The cutting off of hand (qat'i yad) may be taken metaphorically, as in qata'a lisana-hu (lit. he cut off his tongue), which means he silenced him. But even if taken literally, it is not necessary to cut off the hands for every type of theft, and this is a fact, which all jurists have recognized. Qadi Abdul Jabbar has pointed out that a small evil is not called nakal, it becomes so when it has increased considerably and become rampant; consequently the cutting of hand for theft is reserved only for the habitual thieves, who could not otherwise be prevented from repeating the offence (cf. Tafsir al-Kabir, 1:382).
As stated above, in the case of dacoit four grades of punishment are mentioned, ranging from death or crucifixion to mere imprisonment. It is evident that theft is not as serious a crime as dacoit, and hence the minimum punishment for it could not be severer than the minimum punishment for dacoit, which is imprisonment, the next higher being the cutting off of hands. Evidently what is meant is that whereas the maximum punishment for dacoit is death, the maximum punishment for theft is the cutting off of hand. Therefore it is for the judge to decide which punishment will suit a particular case. The state of society may sometimes demand the maximum punishment, even in less serious cases, but there are several circumstances which go to show that the maximum punishment of the cutting off of hand may ordinarily be reserved for habitual thieves:
The minimum punishment for dacoit, having already been mentioned in 5:33 may also be taken as the minimum punishment for the much less serious offence of theft, and this would meet the ends of justice.
The cutting off of hands, being a punishment for the more serious offences falling under dacoit, should also be reserved for the more serious offences falling under theft, and the offence of theft generally becomes more serious when it becomes habitual.
The punishment of cutting of hands, in case of theft, is called an exemplary punishment, and such punishment could only be given in very serious cases, or when the offender is addicted thereto, and the milder punishment of imprisonment has no deterrent effect upon him.
The Koranic verse 5:39 indicates that the object of the punishment is reform, and an occasion to reform can only be given if the punishment for a first or second offence is less severe.
It is true that the cutting off of hands, for even a first crime, is reported in hadith, but this may be due to the particular circumstances of society at the time, and it is for the judge to decide which punishment will suit the circumstances. For instance, according to some hadith, the hand was cut off when the amount stolen was one-quarter of a dinar or more; according to others when it was one dinar or more (Abu Daud, 37:12, Nisai, 46:7). According to another hadith, the hand of the thief was not to be cut off at all when a theft was committed in the course of a journey or on an expedition (Abu Daud, 37:19). The words in Abu Daud are : "I heard the Messenger of God say, Hands shall not be cut off in the course of journey." Probably some other punishment was given in such cases. There are also hadith showing that the hand was not to be cut off for stealing fruit on a tree (Ibid. 37:13). The cutting off of the hand is also prohibited in the case of criminal misappropriation (Ibid. 37:14). When Marwan was the governor of Medina, a certain slave stole young palm trees from the garden of a man, and being caught was imprisonment by Marwan, who intended to cut off his hand. The master of the slave went to Rafi bin Khudaij, who said that he had heard the Prophet as saying that there was to be no cutting off of the hand in the case of theft of fruit, and when Rafi related this to Marwan, the slave was let off (Ibid. 37:13). In another hadith it is stated that when a certain person stole another's mantle valued at 30 dhirams from underneath his head, the owner of the mantle offered that he would sell the same to the person who had stolen it, without demanding immediate payment, and the Prophet approved of this arrangement (Ibid. 37:15). A person guilty of house-breaking was produced before Ali bin Abu Talib. He did not order the cutting of hand, but inflicted the punishment of whipping (Kanz al-Ummal, 3:117). According to Tafsir al-Kabir (3:595), "Ahmad bin Hanbal, Sufian Suawri and Ishaq were of opinion that the hand cannot be cut where fine is imposed."
Punishment for adultery
Adultery and the accusation of adultery are both punishable according to the Koran: "The adulteress and the adulterer, flog each of them, giving a hundred stripes, and let not pity for them detain you in the matter of obedience to God, if you believe in God and the last day, and let a party of believers witness their chastisement" (24:2)
In the case of slave-girls, who are guilty of adultery, the punishment is half of this: "And when they (the slave-girls) are taken in marriage, then if they are guilty of fornication, they shall suffer half the punishment which is inflicted upon free women" (4:25).
These are the only verses speaking of punishment for adultery, and they clearly show that flogging, and not death or stoning to death, is the punishment for adultery. In fact, verse 4:25 precludes all possibility of death punishment for adultery. It speaks clearly of the punishment of adultery in the case of married slave-girls, and says further that the punishment is half the punishment of adultery in the case of free married women. It is generally thought that while the Koran prescribes flogging as a punishment for fornication, i.e., when the guilty person is not married, stoning to death is the punishment for adultery, and that this is based on the Prophet's practice. But the Koran plainly speaks of the punishment for adultery in the case of married slave-girls as being half the punishment of adultery in the case of free married women (muhsanat), and therefore death or stoning to death cannot be conceived of as a possible punishment in case of adultery as it cannot be halved, while imprisonment or flogging may be. Thus the Koran not only speaks of flogging, and not death, as punishment for adultery, but it positively excludes death or stoning to death. Some earliest scholars had alleged that the stoning to death was originally derived from the Torah; others that it had been instituted as part of the Sunnah of the Prophet, while a third group of Muslims had rejected stoning, since, not finding it mentioned in the Koran, they preferred the penalty that was mentioned there. They would be referring doubtless to Koran (24:2): "The adulteress and adulterer, flog each of them, giving a hundred stripes." In his Tafsir al-Kabir (6:214), Fakhruddin Razi records: "All are agreed that the punishment of one hundred stripes is applicable to all types of delinquents."
It should be noted that Koranic teaching emphasizes that Muslims should refrain from abominable thoughts and desires (6:151), thus the adulterous thought (lamam) is not punishable (53:32). The Prophet explained that these are the look in the eye, the desire within the heart and the verbal expressions, which constitutes the preliminaries for sexual intercourse. These are forgiven if they remain unacted upon (Bukhari, 58:65).
Flogging
A few words may be added as to the method of flogging. The Arabic word jald is from the root j-l-d meaning to flog, whip or lash and it appears in the Koran in the form of a command against the culprits (ijlidu at 24:2 and ijlidhum at 24:4). The term jalada signifies he hit or hurt his skin. Jalad (flogging) was therefore a punishment, which should be felt by the skin, and it aimed more at disgracing the culprit than torturing him. In the time of the Prophet, and even for some time after him, there was no whip, and flogging was carried out by beating with a stick or with the hand or with shoes (Radd al-Muhtar, 6:4). It is further stated by the same authority that the culprit was not stripped naked for the infliction of the punishment of flogging; only he was required to take off thick clothes such as would ward off the stroke altogether. According to a report of Ibn Masud and Ahmed bin Hanbal, a shirt or two must be left over the body (Ibid.,6:5). It is further related that it is preferable to give the strokes on different parts of the body, so that no harm should result to any one part, but the face and the private parts must be avoided. (Ibid., 6:5)
Stoning to death
Stoning to death (rajm) as punishment for adultery is stipulated in the hadith, but not in the Koran. The injunction to halve the punishment in certain cases is a clear indication that stoning to death was never contemplated as the punishment of adultery in the Koran. In hadith, however, cases are met with in which adultery was punished with stoning to death. One of these cases is expressly mentioned as the case of Jew and a Jewess: "The Jews came to the Prophet with a man and a woman from among them who had committed adultery; and by his order they were stoned to death near the place where funeral services were held" (Bukhari, 23:61). Further explanation of this incident is given in another hadith where it is stated that when the Jews referred the case to him, he enquired of them what punishment the Torah prescribed in case of adultery. The Jews tried at first to conceal the fact that it was stoning to death, but on Abdullah bin Salm giving the reference, they admitted it and the guilty persons were dealt with as prescribed in Torah (Ibid. 61:25). According to third version, which is most detailed, the Jews who desired to avoid the severer punishment of stoning for adultery said one to another: "Let us go to this Prophet, for he has been raised with milder teachings; so if he gives his decision for a milder punishment than stoning, we will accept it." It is then related that the Prophet went with them to their midras (the house in which the Torah was read), and asked them what punishment was prescribed in their sacred book. They tried to conceal it at first but the truth had to be admitted at last, and the Prophet gave his decision saying: "I give my judgment according to what is in the Torah" (Abu Daud, 37:25)
These reports leave not the shadow of a doubt that stoning was the punishment of adultery in the Jewish law, and that it was in the case of Jewish offenders that this punishment was first resorted to by the Prophet when he came to Medina. It is evident that the Prophet decided several cases of adultery according to the Law of Moses when there was no Koranic ordinance of giving a hundred stripes. The Law of Moses reads: "If a damsel that is virgin be betrothed unto a husband, and a man find her in the city, and lie with her; then ye shall bring them both out unto the gate of that city, and yet shall stone them with stones that they die" (Deut. 22:23). There are other hadith which show that the same punishment was given in certain cases when the offenders were Muslims, but apparently this was before the revelation of the verse (24:2), which speaks of flogging as the punishment for both the adulterer and the adulteress, it being the practice of the Prophet to follow the earlier revealed law until he received a definite revelation on a point. A suggestion to that effect is contained in a hadith: Shaibani says, I asked Abdullah bin Abi Aufa, "Did the Prophet stone to death?" He said, "Yes." I said, "Was it before the chapter entitled the Light (24th chapter) was revealed or after it?" The reply was, "I do not know" (Bukhari, 86:21). The chapter referred to is that which speaks of flogging as a punishment for adultery, and the question shows clearly that the practice of stoning for adultery was recognized as being against the plain injunction contained in that chapter. It is likely that some misunderstanding arose from the incidents, which happened before the Koranic revelation on the point, and that that practice was taken as the Sunnah of the Prophet.
The question seems to have arisen early as to how an adulterer could be stoned, when the Koran prescribed flogging as the only punishment for adultery. Caliph Umar is reported to have said that, "there are people who say, What about stoning, for the punishment prescribed in the Book of God is flogging" (Masnad, 1:50). To such objectors, Umar's reply is stated as follows: "In what God revealed, there was the verse of rajm (stoning); we read it and we understood it and we guarded it; the Prophet did stone (adulterers to death) and we also stoned after him, but I fear that when more time passes away, a sayer would say, We do not find the verse of rajm in the Book of God" (Bukhari, 86:31). According to another version he is reported to have added: "Were it not that people would say that Umar has added in the Book of God that which is not in it, I would have written it" (Abu Daud, 37:23). The argument attributed to Umar is very unsound. He admitted that the Koran did not contain any verse prescribing the punishment of stoning for adulterers, and at the same time he is reported as stating that there was such a verse in what God revealed. In all probability what Umar meant, if he ever spoke those words, was that the verse of stoning was to be found in the Jewish sacred book, the Torah, and that the Prophet stoned adulterers to death. The use of the words "Book of God" (Kitab–Allah) for the Torah is common in the Koran (2:213, etc.) In all likelihood Umar only spoke of rajm as the punishment of adultery in the Mosaic law and he was misunderstood. At any rate he could not have spoken the words attributed to him. Had there been such a verse of the Koran, he would have brought it to the notice of the Companions. How could he say that there was a verse of the Koran, which he would have written down in the Koran, but he feared that people would say that he had made an addition to the Koran.
There is further evidence in hadith itself that Umar himself at least in one reported case, punished adultery with flogging as laid down in the Koran (24:2), and not with the stoning to death. It is related that one of Umar's collectors, Hamza by name, found that a married man who had committed adultery with his wife's slave-girl had been punished by Umar with a hundred stripes, and he referred the case to Umar, and Umar upheld his first decision (Bukhari, 39:1). His own action therefore negatives the hadith which attributes to him the statement that stoning to death as a punishment for adultery was an ordinance contained in the Koranic verse. After a thorough examination of all the traditions, Suyuti came to the conclusion that, "The assertion that a verse about rajm was revealed is based on traditions, which are isolated (ahad) and these cannot supersede the Koranic injunction or cast doubt on its purity" (Itaqan, 2:26).
An explanation is sometimes offered, that such a verse had been revealed but that it was abrogated afterwards, though the ordinance contained in it remained effective. There is no sense at all in this explanation. If the words of verse were abrogated, the ordinance contained in those words went along with them. No ordinance can be given except in words, and if the words are abrogated, the ordinance is also abrogated. If therefore such a verse was ever revealed (for which there is no testimony worth the name), the admission that it was abrogated leaves the matter where it was before its revelation. Mir Waliullah writes in Muslim Jurisprudence and the Koranic Law of Crimes (Lahore, 1982, p. 143) that, "It may be noted that a minority of Muslim jurists have always held the opinion that the only punishment for adultery of all kinds is a hundred stripes and that rajm is based on no authority. Most of the modern Muslim jurists and scholars have expressed the same opinion." Muhammad Iqbal Siddiqi also writes in The Penal Law of Islam (Lahore, 1971, p. 60) that, "The punishment of one hundred lashes alone is prescribed, the word rajm (stoning to death) is nowhere mentioned in the Koran as punishment for zina. Further, the traditions relied on in support of stoning to death are discordant and fail to establish that any such punishment was awarded after the revelation of the Sura al-Noor.""
Accusation of adultery "A false accusation (qadhf) of adultery is punished almost as severely as adultery itself: "And those who accuse free women, then do not bring four witnesses, flog them, giving eighty stripes, and do not admit any evidence from them ever; and these it is that are the transgressors. Except those who repent after this and act aright, for God is Forgiving, Merciful" (24:4-5)
It may be added here that while in ordinary matters two witnesses are required (2:282), in the case of an accusation of adultery four witnesses must be produced. Thus, a case of adultery can be established only on the strongest possible evidence. That circumstantial evidence is accepted is shown by the Koran itself in Joseph's case who, when accused of an assault on the chief's wife, was declared free of the charge on circumstantial evidence (12:26-28). There is also a number of hadith showing that circumstantial evidence was accepted when it led to the establishment of a certain fact.
Drunkenness
The Koran does not speak of any punishment for the man who drinks wine, but there are hadith showing that the Prophet inflicted punishment in such cases. This punishment seems to have been of a very mild type. It however appears that punishment was inflicted only in cases when a man was intoxicated with drink. Thus, it is related that a certain person called Nuaiman or Ibn Nuaiman was brought to the Prophet in a state of intoxication, and it distressed the Prophet, so he ordered those who were in the house to give him a beating, and he was beaten with shoes and sticks (Bukhari, 86:4). Another incident is related in which the person who had drunk wine was beaten with hands and with shoes and with thaub or garments (Ibid. 86:5). Such remained the practice in the time of the Prophet and that of Abu Bakr, and for some time in the reign of Umar, and very mild punishment was inflicted with hands or shoes or ardiya (pl. of rida, being the wrapping garment covering the upper half of the body), but Umar then introduced flogging, giving forty stripes, raising the punishment to eighty stripes, it is added, when people behaved inordinately (atau) and transgressed fasaqu or limits (Ibid. 51:5).
General directions for execution of punishments
Punishment must be inflicted without respect of persons, nor should mediation be accepted in such cases. When, in the case of a certain woman who was guilty of theft, some people sought to intercede on her behalf through Usama, since she came of a good family, the Prophet was enraged and said, "Don't you intercede in the matter of a hadd (punishment)? and then addressed the people in general, saying, Those before you went astray, for, when one of them committed a crime and he was a great man, they would not punish him, and when he was a poor man they would execute the punishment (Ibid. 86:12). But lenience was shown in the execution of punishment when the guilty person showed signs of repentance (Ibid. 86:27). It is strictly forbidden that one man should be punished for the crime of another (Abu Daud, 38:2). Nor is any punishment to be inflicted on a madman or a minor (Bukhari, 86:22). The punishment of the pregnant woman is to be deferred until she has delivered her child. (Sunan by Abu Abdullah Mohammad bin Kathir Qashi, 21:36).
Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral HujatEncyclopedia TopicArgue. Quarrel
Various Sources HUJJA(t)Noun(Arabe.) V. PIR*, Aql-i Qul*, Imam Mustawda. La Preuve. Titre et niveau. Ne pas confondre avec Hujja dans le sens de DAI (Nassir Khusraw = Hujjat du Khorassan)
Heritage Dictionary of Ismailism, entry #48general HUJJATEncyclopedia TopicThe word hujjat means sign or proof. It was a high rank in the mission hierarchy of the Ismailis to denote the chief representative of the Imam. The hujjat of the Imam is like the moon, which reflects the light of the sun, i.e., the Imam, and the hujjat acts on his behalf when the Imam is concealed.
Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral HUJJAT ALLAHEncyclopedia TopicThe term hujjat Allah means the sign of God. According to the Shi'ites, the Imam is the sign or proof of God (hujjat Allah) on earth. He is the bearer of Divine Light dressed in different bodies in every age to guide his followers. Imam Jafar Sadik said, "The Imams are the proofs (hujjat) of God on earth, their words are the words of God, and their commands are the commands of God. Obedience to them is obedience to God, and disobedience to them is disobedience to God. In all their decisions they are inspired by God, and they are in absolute authority. It is to them, therefore, that God has ordained obedience" (al-Kafi, pp. 214).
Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral HULWANI, al-Name(8th Century) He was a Dai sent with Abu Sufiyan to Northern Africa by Imam Jafar Sadiq in 145/762-763.
(8e. S.) Dai envoyé avec Abu Sufiyan en Afrique du Nord par Imam Jafar Sadiq en 145/762-3.
Heritage Dictionary of ismailism, entry #246general HunEncyclopedia TopicI, me, will be
Various Sources Hun gharEncyclopedia TopicThat house
Various Sources Hun hunEncyclopedia TopicI, egotism, I am, ego, me, selfishness
Various Sources Hun parEncyclopedia TopicThe other shore
Various Sources Hun taEncyclopedia TopicI am
Various Sources HUNAIN, BATTLE OFEncyclopedia Topic"After the conquest of Mecca, the Muslims stayed in the city for two weeks when a news soon broke out that a big army had been mobilized in the valley of Hunain to attack Mecca and to undo the victory of the Muslims. This time the Prophet assembled a force of twelve thousand warriors, which included two thousand non-Muslim Meccans. The Prophet was forced to make necessary preparations for defence. He felt the necessity of borrowing money for provisions and war supplies, therefore, according to Masnad (Cairo, 1895, 4:36) by Ahmad bin Hanbal (d. 241/855), "He took a loan of 30,000 dhirams from Abdullah bin Rabiah, a step-brother of Abu Jahl, who was very rich." He also wanted from Safwan bin Umayyah, who had not yet accepted Islam, to lend him the weapons of war. Safwan offered one hundred coats of mail together with their accessories. On 6th Shawal, 8/January 27, 630, the Prophet marched to Hunain to crush the powers of the four savage tribes, viz. Thaqif, Hawazin, Sa'd and Jasam. In order to reach the fertile valley of Taif, they had to pass through a narrow defile, called Hunain. It is a name of a valley running from Shara'il-ul-Mujahid, which is 11 miles east-north-east of Mecca, to Shara'i Nakhlah, which is 7 miles and then runs north towards Zeima. Between the Shara'i the valley is quite wide, about 2 miles in most places, but beyond the old Shara'i it narrows down to between a quarter and a half-mile, and as it approaches Zeima, it gets narrower still. It is this second portion of the Hunain valley, which is a defile, and the defile is narrowest near Zeima. Beyond Zeima the Taif route winds into the Wadi Nakhlat-ul-Yamaniyya.
When the Muslim army entered the narrow defiles overlooking the valley, Hawazin sharp-shooters, securely hidden; sent forth a murderous rain of arrows, causing havoc among the Muslims ranks, who took to a wild flight, and only a handful were left with the Prophet. At this critical moment, writes Ibn Hisham (2:444), the Prophet raised his voice in a great cry, "O Muslims! I am here! I am the Prophet of God, and no one dare doubt my word. I am Muhammad, the son of Abdul Muttalib." But his cries were of no avail. The leading elements of Hawazin got to the place where the Prophet stood, and here Ali brought down the first infidel to fall at Hunain - a man mounted on a red camel, carrying a long lance at the end of which flew a black pennant. This man was chasing the Muslims as they fled. Ali pursued the man, and cut the tendons of the camel's hind legs with his sword. The man fell with the camel. The Prophet now moved towards the right with his handful Companions and took shelter on a rocky spur. He turned to Ibn Abbas and ordered him to call the Muslims to rally around him. Ibn Abbas was of large stature who had very resonant voice, which according to some accounts, could be heard long away. He shouted: "O' people of Ansars! O'people of the Tree (those who had taken oath of allegiance at Hudaibia)" No sooner did this inspiring call reach the ears of the retreating Muslims than they rallied again, and made a counter-attack. The tide turned at once, and the unbelievers took to flight and dispersed.
It must be known that the Muslims had counter-attacked with such reckless courage that the enemy's ranks were broken and their forces split into two. One half fled widely from the field and retreated to their homes, the other half took refuge in their fortress of Taif. Thus, the Muslims pursued the fleeing enemy to the city wall of the fortified Taif, about 75 miles from Mecca by the old route, and laid siege to the city which lasted for a month or so. It is reported that the Muslims had used for the first time the advanced siege appliances of the day, such as the dababah (a wheeled structure made of brick and stone to provide a constant cover to besiegers) and the minjaniq (ballista, a wooden structure to hurl large stones to break through fortifications) newly acquired from the Jews of Khaibar. They caused considerable loss of life to the besiegers by the advanced defensive unit of shooting arrows with fireballs of bitumen as warheads against the wooden ballista. Later, the Prophet raised the siege on the advice of a wise Bedouin. Meanwhile, the defeated Hawazin sent six of their chiefs to seek peace and beg for mercy, which was accepted. This is called the battle of Hunain, in which the enemies lost seventy of their bravest. Six thousand captives including women and children, forty thousand sheep and goats, four thousand ounces of silver and twenty four thousand camels formed the booty of Hunain.
Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral HunarEncyclopedia TopicMiracle, skill
Various Sources HundhEncyclopedia TopicIf
Various Sources HuntoEncyclopedia TopicI am
Various Sources HUREncyclopedia TopicThe word hur occurs four times in the Koran (44:54, 52:20, 55:72 and 56:22), three of which appear in connection with the adjective in (sing. Feminine ayna, masculine a'yan), meaning white-eyed with a deep black pupil. It is a plural of ahwar (applied to a man) and of haura (applied to a woman), signifying one having eyes characterizd by the quality termed hawar. The word hawar means originally whiteness (a symbol of purity), and the word haura is applied to a woman who is of a white colour and whose white of the eyes is intensely white and the black thereof intensely black. Ahwar, besides being applied to a man of a similar description, also signifies pure or clear intellect. In fact, purity is the prevailing idea in hawar, and therefore hawar, which is derived from the same root, means a pure and a sincere friend. Hence, "pure ones" is the nearest rendering of the word hur in English. The word entered in Europe through the Persian singular (huri or huri beheshti) and the Turkish huree.
The four occasions on which the women of paradise are spoken of as hur are quoted below: "Surely, the righteous are in a secure place, in gardens and springs........and We will give them the company of pure (hur), beautiful ones" (44:51-54), "Surely, the righteous shall be in garden and bliss.......Reclining on thrones set in lines, and We will give them the company of pure (hur), beautiful ones" (52:17-20), "In them (i.e., the gardens) are goodly women, beautiful ones.....Pure ones (hur) confined to the pavilions" (55:70-72) and "And the foremost are the foremost, these are they who are drawn nigh (to God). In the gardens of bliss.........On thrones inwrought.........And pure (hur), beautiful ones, the likes of hidden pearls: a reward for what they used to do" (56:10-24).
In three other verses (37:48-9, 38:52, 55:56), the paradise virgins are described as qasirat al-tarfi (of modest gaze). In all seven verses the paradise virgins are promised as a reward for God-fearing believers and sincere servants of God. In two occasions the verb "to wed" is used; "and We shall wed them unto fair ones" (bi-hurin inin) (44:54, 52:20). Of the paradise virgins, it is described "neither man nor jinn has touched them" (55:56; where lam yatmithhunna means still not deflowered); they are like hidden pearls (56:23), and closely guarded in pavilions (55:72).
Are hur the women that go to paradise, the wives of the righteous? A hint to this effect is given in a hadith. The last of the occasions on which the hur are spoken of is 56:10-24, and in continuation of the subject there occur the words: "Surely, We have made them to grow into a new growth, then We have made them virgins, loving, equals in age, for the sake of the companions of the right hand" (56:35-38). In connection with this, the making them "to grow into a new growth," the Prophet is reported to have said, that by this are meant women who have grown old here. The meaning, therefore, is that all good women shall grow into a new growth in the new life of the resurrection, so that they shall all be virgins, equals in age. The Prophet's explanation shows that the word hur is used to describe the new growth into which women of this world will grow. An anecdote is also related that an old woman came to the Prophet when he was sitting with his Companions, and asked him if she would go to paradise. In a spirit of mirth, the Prophet remarked that there would be no old woman in paradise. She was about to turn away rather sorrowfully, when the Prophet comforted her with the words that all women shall be made to grow into a new growth, so that there shall be no old woman in paradise, and recited the verses quoted above.
The conclusion to which this hadith leads is further supported by what is stated in the Koran. The description of hur, as given in the Koran, contains the best qualities of a good woman, purity of character, beauty, youthful appearance, restrained eyes and love for her husband. But even if the hur are taken to be a blessing of paradise, and not the women of this material world, it is a blessing as well for men as for women. Just as the gardens, rivers, milk, honey, fruits, and numerous other things of paradise are both for men and women, even so are hur. What these blessings actually are, no one knows, but the whole picture of paradise drawn in the Koran strongly condemns the association of any sensual idea therewith. It may however be asked, why are these blessings described in words which apply to women? The fact is that the reward spoken of here has special reference to the purity and beauty of character, and if there is an emblem of purity and beauty, it is womanhood, not manhood.
Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral HuraEncyclopedia TopicHouries
Various Sources HuraunEncyclopedia TopicHouries
Various Sources Huren joEncyclopedia TopicOf the houries
Various Sources HURUF-I MUQATTATEncyclopedia TopicThe word huruf means letters and muqattat is derived from qata'a, meaning to cut or abbreviated. Hence, Huruf-i Muqattat refers to the abbreviated letters of the Koran. It is also called fawatih al-suwar (the openers of the suras), or awa'il al-suwar (the beginnings of the suras).
It has been used in the Koran at the commencement of 29th sura and there is much controversy among the scholars in their interpretations. The huruf-i muqattat in all 14 in number as follows:
1. Alif Lam Mim : In sura 2, 3, 29, 30, 31 & 32 = 6
2. Alif Lam Mim Swad : In sura 7. = 1
3. Alif Lam Ra : In sura 10, 11, 12, 14 & 15 = 5
4. Alif Lam Mim Ra : In sura 13 = 1
5. Kaf Ha Ya Ain Swad : In sura 19 = 1
6. Ta Ha : In sura 20 = 1
7. Ta Sim Mim : In sura 26 and 28 = 2
8. Ta Sin : In sura 27 = 1
9. Ya Sin : In sura 36 = 1
10. Swad : In sura 38 = 1
11. Ha Mim : In sura 40 = 1
12. Ha Mim Sajda : In sura 41, 43, 44, 45 & 46 = 6
13. Ha Mim Ain Sin Kaf : In sura 42 = 1
14. Nun : In sura 68 = 1
The science of phonetics tells us that our vocal sounds arise from the expulsion of the air from the lungs, and the sounds are determined by the way in which the breath passes through the various organs of speech e.g., the throat, or the various positions of the tongue, middle or front of the palate or to the teeth, or to the play of the lips. Every one of these kinds of sounds is represented in the 14 letters, which have been used in the formation of Huruf-i Muqattat.
Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral