Ismaili Dictionary & Encyclopedia

ShukarvarEncyclopedia Topic

Friday

Various Sources SHUKREncyclopedia Topic

"The word shukr (pl. shukur) means thankfulness or gratitude. The verb to thank, to be grateful (shakara) and its various cognates, such as shukr occur 74 times in the Koran. A dominant feature of the concept of gratitude in the Koran is its use to describe the spiritual bond binding the believer to God. Gratitude has a very broad semantic field in the Koran with a strong theocentric character in the sense that shukr is owed chiefly to God, even if that means through what God has made and the offices he has appointed. Shukr is a spiritual and moral state of mind, spiritual in the sense of acknowledging the believer's obligation to the Creator, and moral in the sense of mandating rightful conduct in relation to God and those appointed by God. The roots of shukr lie in the act of creation to which human beings owe their life, with sustenance of life through God's bounties and blessings. God has furnished people with the earthy life and the means of its enjoyment, and still ingratitude clouds the human response (7:10). In the chapter of Rahman, the Koran rehearses for the believers the bounties and blessings of God with a refrain, "which of your Lord's bounties will you deny?" "And surely, your God is the Lord of grace, but most of them are ungrateful" (27:73).

Ghazalli cites the Prophet as saying that among the remembrances of God nothing is more meritorious than "thanks be to God" (Ihya, p. 53). As such, glorification of God (subhan Allah) and praise be to God (al-hamdu li-llah) signify the proper attitude of the acknowledgement of blessings from God. God is the Benefactor from whom gifts come without being mediated through an intermediary. Consequently, gratitude for God's blessings should rebound to God alone: "So remember Me, and I will remember you; and be thankful to Me; and be you not ungrateful towards Me." (2:152).

By extension, gratitude is a mark of the moral order God has ordained for human society and its furtherance, and the following verse makes clear: "We have charged man, that he be kind to his parents

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral ShunEncyclopedia Topic

What?

Various Sources ShuraEncyclopedia Topic

Brave

Various Sources ShuraEncyclopedia Topic

Brave, expert

Various Sources ShuraEncyclopedia Topic

Brave, courageous

Various Sources Shura / ShuroEncyclopedia Topic

Brave, courageous

Various Sources SianaEncyclopedia Topic

Beauliful, comfortable

Various Sources SIBAK AL-KHAYLEncyclopedia Topic

Horse is an important and valuable member of the mammalia. Among the earliest evidence of the importance of the horse to human culture are the unearthed wall paintings in the caves of Lascaux, in southern France, dating around 30,000 B.C. The horse first became useful in welfare sometimes before 1500 B.C. when Mesopotamian people began to use horses to pull their chariots. There is however a question rose by Canon Taylor in his Origin of the Aryans (p.161), whether the horse was at first used for drawing chariots or for riding. He, and William Ridgeway (Academy of 3rd January, 1891) says that, “At first the horse was very small and incapable of carrying man and that it was after generations of domestication under careful feeding and breeding that the horse became of sufficient size to carry man on his back with ease.” According to Max Muller, it appears from the Vedas that, in India, it was used both for chariot-driving and riding.

The thoroughbred racehorse, whose remote ancestor, Eohippus, was a small, hoofed quadruped about the size of a fox, is the most beautiful animal bred by man. By a careful process of selection through the race-course test over a period of two hundred and fifty years, a noble and courageous beast has been fashioned in the hands of skilled breeders, from an original blend of the imported, pure-bred Arabian, and so called Turkish or Barbary sires, and the English hybrid mares existing in Europe at the end of 17th century.

The earliest dates for horse-racing have not yet been confirmed. Such contests were however held in Babylonian, Syria and Egypt. Clay tablets excavated in Cappadocia in Asia Minor, written in 1400 B.C. reveal on the training of horses for racing. The four horse chariot races were introduced into Olympic Games of Greece in 23rd Olympiad, or about 664 B.C. It was 33rd Olympiad that the race for mounted horses was first introduced about 624 B.C., and the first race for saddled horses was held in the games of 564 B.C.

Horse-racing is derived from warfare, chariot racing, and the chase, and it is not without significance that, at the time of the Roman occupation of Britain, Queen Boadicea and her people, the tribe of the Iceni, lived on Newmarket Heath and that their gold and silver coins were stamped on the reverse side with the effigy of a horse. The earliest horse-race in England, of which a record still exists, took place at Netherby in Yorkshire in about A.D. 210 between Arabian steeds brought to Europe by the Roman Emperor Septimus Severus Alexander, who made special arrangements for the shelter and training of these delicate horses. In the reign of King Richard I, the horse race became a fashionable pastime for the barons and knights. It was not until the reign of King Henry VIII that the first race-course was officially established on the Roodee at Chester in 1540, and an annual prize first instituted, which took the form of a silver bell; and moreover this monarch did much to improve the royal studs and the breed of the horse in general throughout the country.

According to Encyclopaedia Americana (14:391), “Horses begin to appear in Arabia in the 1st century B.C., and by the time of (Prophet) Muhammad a distinct and unique type of Arabic horse had evolved.” The Prophet used horses to great effect in the holy wars. They proved faster and more maneuverable than camels. It was the Prophet who directed that horses should be bred by the faithful, so that they would be better prepared to gallop out and spread the Faith of Islam. The order from the Prophet, enshrined in the Koran meant that horse breeding began to spread among the Bedouin and the true Arabian breed began. Historian Ibn Khallikan (3:476) writes that “We know that in the 12000 Berber cavalry who disembarked in Spain under the command of Tariq bin Zihad, there were twelve Arabian horses. Hence the Arabian horses introduced into the West.” Thus, Arab became the home of England’s Derby.

The common Arabic word for horse is faras, whether stallion (fahl) or mare; as a collective al-khayl. The word khayl for horse occurs five times in the Koran. The title and the first verse of Sura 79 (Those that Draw, al-naziat) and Sura 100 (The Runners, al-adiyat) are probably further references to horses. The title of Sura 37 (Those who Dress the Ranks, al-saffat), Sura 51 (Those that Scatter, al-dhariyat) and Sura 77 (Those that are Sent, al-mursalat) may also refer to them as well.

According to the Koran: “By the adiyat that run panting, and those that strike fire dashing” (100:1-2). Most of the commentators suggest the meaning of adiyat as panting horses on the authority of Ibn Abbas.

“And (He created) horses and mules and asses for you to ride and as zinat” (16:8). The Arabic word zina or zinat means ornament, amusement, or entertainment. Hence, the horses, mules and asses, in which horses are prominent; are meant not only for riding, but breeding and racing.

The tradition has it that the first to ride a horse was Prophet Ismael. Others again claim that the Arab horses are descended from those of Solomon. The latter inherited 1000 horses from David. It is said that the tribe of Azd once came to Solomon and asked for a present, he gave them one of the steeds, to which they gave the name zad al-rakib; from it are descended all the Arab horses.

An ancient race that came to prominence with the rise of Islam. They have bred closely guarded pure strains of hot blooded desert horses for centuries – it is said an Arab can recite the pedigree of his favorite horses going back to 600 A.D. The best horses were never sold and never left Arabia. God is said to have created the horse out of the south wind, and some Arabian horse bear the Prophet’s thumb mark on their neck, where Mohammed was supposed to have touched them

Horse Racing (sibak al-khayl or ijra al-khayl) had been a major sport and a favorite pastime in pre-Islamic Arabia. It was a part of equitation (furusiyya), regarded as essential for military training and also as an object of entertainment for the people from all walks of life. During the Islamic period the breeding, maintenance and training of horses became one of the means of facilitating the prosecution of the holy war. The Prophet regarded horse-breeding as a meritorious calling, and assigned to it a share in the booty obtained on the battle field. This religious sanction fostered a competitive attitude amongst the breeders and encouraged the augmentation of the stock, which suffered considerable depletion in the course of the wars of that time. Cavalry was in fact to become an important factor in the military success of the Muslims.

Kunwar Muhammad Ashraf writes in Life and Conditions of the people of Hindustan (Karachi, 1978, p. 187) that, “Horse-racing was just as popular. It had the additional advantage of the blessings of the Prophet who had prohibited other amusements and gambling in no uncertain terms, but was indulgent towards betting on horse-racing. A regular literature soon sprang up on the study of the habits, the foods, and the nourishment, the care and the training of horses, which does credit to the scientific methods of the age. It is quite reasonable to infer from these facts that the number of pedigree horses was quite large in the studs of the Sultans and the nobles. Special Arab horses were imported for racing purposes from Yamen, Oman, and Fars. Each animal is reported to have cost from one hundred to four thousand tankas.”

It is therefore not surprising that a rich literature came into being which contained information on hippology, horse-breeding, the genealogies of horses and their various categories, on race-courses, horse-racing, farriery and equitation. No other animal evoked from the writers of the time so large a number of literary works, both in prose and in poetry. Ibn Nadim in his famous catalogue of Arabic books, compiled in 377/987, Kitab al-Fihrist (tr. by Bayard Dodge, London, 1970, pp. 80-213), mentions the following works on the horse and on matters relating to it: Kitab al-Khayl by Abu Ubaidah (d. 210/825), Kitab al-Khayl, Kitab khalq al-Faras and Kitab al-Sarj wal-lijam by Asma’i (d. 213/828), Kitab al-Khayl by Ahmed bin Hatim (d. 231/846), Kitab khalq al-Faras by Ibrahim al-Zujaj (d. 310/914), Kitab khayl al-Kabir and Kitab khayl al-Saghir and Kitab al-Sarj wal-lijam by Ibn Durayd (d. 321/925), Kitab al-khayl and Kitab Nasab al-khayl by Mohammad bin Ziyad al-Arabi (d. 231/846), Kitab khalq al-Faras by Abi Thabit, Kitab khalq al-Khayl by Hisham bin Ibrahim al-Kirmani, Kitab khalq al-Faras by Kassim al-Anbari, Kitab al-khayl al-Sawabik by Khawlani, Kitab khalq al-Faras by Washsha (d. 325/930), Kitab al-khayl by Hisham al-Kalbi (d. 207/822), Kitab al-khayl wal-Rihan by Madaini (d. 215/830), Kitab al-Hala’ib wal-Rihan by Ahmed al-Khazzaz (d. 258/871), Kitab al-khayl bi Khatt Ibn al-Kufi by Mohammad bin Habib, Kitab al-Fursan by Abu Khalifa (d. 305/909), Kitab Sifat al-khayl wal Ardiya wa Asmaiha bin Makka wa ma Walaha by Abu al-Ashath, Kitab Akhbar al-Faras wa-Ansabuha by Abul Hasan al-Nassaba, Kitab al-khayl by Qadi al-Ashna’i, Kitab al-khayl by Attabi, Kitab al-khayl by Utabi (d. 228/843), Kitab al-khayl al-Kabir by Ahmed bin Abi Tahir (d. 280/894) and Kitab Jamhara al-Ansab al-Faras by Ibn Khurdadhbih (d. 300/904). Masudi (d. 345/950) in his Muruj al-Dhahab (Paris, 1861, 4:24-5) refers a book, called al-Jala’ib wal Hala’ib by Issa bin Lahi’a, a work which, according to him, included a detailed description of almost every race (halba) of pre-Islamic and Islamic periods.

In the Hidayah (2:432), it is said that horses are of four kinds: 1) Birzaun or Burzun (a heavy draught horse brought from foreign countries). 2) Atiq (a first blood horse of Arabia). 3) Hain (a half-bred horse whose mother is an Arab and father a foreigner), and 4) A half-bred horse whose father is an Arab and whose mother is a foreigner).

Long maydans (hippodromes) were set apart for this purpose in Arabia. According to Hilayat al-Fursan fi Shi’ar al-Shujan (Leiden, 1872, p. 142) by Ibn Hudhayl, “Islam forbade gambling (maisar) but allowed the placing of wagers on archery (nasal), foot-racing (qadam) and horse-racing (hafir)” The Egyptian scholar Isa bin Lahiah (d. 762) is already credited with a book entitled al-Jala’ib wal Hala’ib in which he mentioned every race, where horses were run in pre-Islamic and Islamic times. The work of al-Asma’i, Kitab al-khayl (ed. Haffner, Vienna, 1875) and Kitab al-Sarj of Abu Ubaidah are very rich to provide the relative informations.

According to Fadl al-khayl (p.389) by ad-Dimyati (1217-1306), “Contrary to the hadith of the Prophet which permitted competitions with camel, horse and arrow (khuff, hafir, nasl), some people even contented that racing for stakes was permissible only for horses, as this was what the Arabs of old were accustomed to.” We may also quote what ad-Dimyati has to say in the 5th chapter of his Fadl al-khayl that, “Ibn Banin (1181-1263) has mentioned in his book that the Messenger of God raced horses with garments that had come to him from Yamen as stakes. He gave the winner (sabiq) three, the second horse (musalli) two, the third horse one, the fourth horse one dinar, the fifth horse one dhiram, and the sixth horse a rod (qasabah). He said: “May God bless you and all of you, the winner (sabiq) and the loser (fiskil)”.

Abul Hasan Ahmad bin Yahya bin Jabir al-Baladhuri, Ibn Sad, al-Waqidi, Abd al Muhaymin bin Abbas bin Sahl bin Sad, his father (Abbas), his grandfather (Sahl), who said: “(Once) when the Messenger of God raced horses, I was riding on his az-Zarib. He gave me a Yamenite cloak.”

He (al-Baladhuri) said: I have been told by Muhammad bin Sad, al-Waqidi, Sulayman bin al-Harith, az-Zubayr bin al-Mundhir bin Abi Usayd, who said: “Abu Usayd as-Saidi raced on the Prophet’s horse Lizaz, and he gave him a Yemenite garment.”

Al- Khuttali reports in his book a tradition of Ibn Lahiah, Bakr bin Amr, Ibrahim bin Muslim, Abu Alqamah, the client of the Banu Hashim (stating) that the Messenger of God had ordered the horses to be raced, and he put up as prizes for them (sabbaqaha) three bunches of dates from three palm trees. He gave one bunch to the winner, one to the second horse, and one to the third horse. They were fresh dates.” (vide Fadl al-Khayl by ad-Dimyati)

According to Dar-Qutni (2:552), “Sanjah was another horse the Prophet used to ride on. Once it was made to have a race. It won and the Prophet was much delighted.”

According to Encyclopaedia of Seerah (London, 1987, 5:579), “Ibn Umar reported that the Prophet organized horse races and gave a prize to the winner. All this was done by the Prophet to encourage competition in sports involving physical exercise and discipline.”

Imam Ahmed bin Hanbal writes in his Masnad that Anas was asked, “Did you bet during the time of the Prophet? Did the Prophet bet?” “Yes” Anas replied. “By Allah, he bet on a horse called Subbah. The horse won the race and the Prophet was very pleased about it.” Bukhari (4:121) recorded a tradition on the authority of Abdullah bin Umar that the Prophet arranged a horse race, which had not been made lean; the area of the race was from Ath-Thaniya to the mosque of Banu Zurayk. Abdullah bin Umar also narrates that he also participated in the race.

The Prophet favored and encouraged horse racing, and made the following utterances for horse:

“There is blessing in the forelocks of horses.” (Masnad)
“Practice archery and horseback riding.” (al-Muslim)
“The best horses are black with white forehead and having a white upper lip.” (Bukhari)

According to Encyclopaedia of Islam (1965, 2:953) that: “The Prophet did not forbid racing, which fostered rivalry between breeders and encouraged the preservation and increase of the stocks of horse so much reduced by the wars. During his lifetime, he made regulations for them, and by his advice tried to establish what were for the most part open competitions by making the size of the field uniform and fixing the distance to be covered according to the age of the horses taking part. The traditionalists relate that he organized races at Medina, from Hafiya to Thaniyyat al-Wada (60 ghalwa) for mature horses and from Thaniyyat al-Wada to Banu Zurayk (10 ghalwa) for young horses. He himself presented substantial prizes for these competitions and entered his own horses.” While Qabisa, Safayan, Abdullah and Nafiya narrate on the authority of Umar that the Prophet held racing of trained horses (khayl) from Hafiya to Thaniyyat al-Wada; and from Thaniyyat to the mosque of Banu Zurayk for the untrained horses. Umar further narrates that he himself took part in it. Safayan narrates that the distance between Hafiya to Thaniyyat was five or six miles and one mile between Thaniyyat to the mosque of Banu Zurayk.” (Bukhari, 2:84)

It has also been recorded that the horses to be raced were given adequate training under certain conditions, called tadmir or idmar. According to Encyclopaedia of Islam (2:953), “Training lasted in Arab 40 to 60 days; and had the effect of bringing the horse into good conditions by a suitable system of feeding, while excessive weight was sweated off under blankets. Horses thinned down in this way were called “hinad”, and the sweat they lost “sirah”. On the other hand, Dar-Qutni (2:552-4) provides us system and manner of Arabian horse racing as follow: “Ali used to look after the arrangement for horse-races. He assigned this duty to Surqa bin Malik as his deputy and formed certain rules of proceeding which are as follows:

1.                    The horses should be made to stand in a row.
2.                    It should be thrice announced that, if one has to set the rein in order, or get the colt to accompany the mare, or part with the saddle, he should look to it at once.
3.                    If anybody makes an answer, the takbir (the phrase, God is Great) should be cried out three times, and on the third takbir, the horses should start off.
4.                    The animal’s ears should be considered decisive measure for determining as a winner.

Hazrat Ali would place himself at the farthest end of the plain, would draw a line and post two men at each of the line. The racing horses had to cross the line between these two.”

The conquest of Arabs under caliph Umar brought them into contact with foreign equestrian traditions and led them to organize new tactics for warfare on horseback. These foreign traditions were that of Iran, Turkey and Greek.

Under the Umayyads, racing would see to have been a passionate interest. The people in general being unable to meet the expenses of animal racing, held competitions involving horses, camels, donkeys, mules or dogs. The two-hemped racing camels were known as bukhti. Yakut (d. 626) writes in Irshad al-Arib ila ma’rifa al-adib (London, 1907, 4:116-17) that the Umayyad caliph Hisham once organized a grand race, in which four thousand horses are reported to have participated over a distance of 250 ghalwa. A hundred tokens were placed and the row of horses stretched over a distance of six bow shots. Masudi in his Muruj al-Dhahab (8:359-72) recorded a poem which describes the merits of the horses participating in a race, a description which underlines the keen interest of the Arabs in horse-racing. A similar poem with slight variations can also be seen in Ibn Hudhayl’s Hilayat (pp. 144-6).

Horse-racing during the early Abbasid period was much popular. Even the caliphs, the princes and the vizirs vied with each other in the breeding of race-horses. The scattered material at our disposal does not throw sufficient light on the organization of these races, the financing of them and their frequency. Jahshiyari (d. 331/936) in his al-Wuzara wal Kuttab (Cairo, 1938, pp. 207-8) however notes that in the court circle such races were arranged at the bidding of the caliphs. Thus, Jafar al-Barmaki organized a horse-racing at Raqqa in response to an order from the caliph Harun ar-Rashid, a race in which that of the vizir beat the horse of the caliph. In another account, given by Masudi, it is known that Harun ar-Rashid was overjoyed when he found that his horse came in first and that of his son second. The favorite horse of Harun ar-Rashid was named, Mushammir.

Ibn Abd Rabbih (246-328) in his al-Iqd al-Farid (1:194-5) writes that in a race held in the year 185/802, the caliph Harun ar-Rashid having won the race, asked the grammarian Asma’i to extol his horse by describing the various parts of the horse’s body in a poem : a poem which contained a rich vocabulary of technical terms relating to the horses.

It is also evident that one man could enter more than one horse in a race. Khalid al-Barmaki is said to have won the first three prizes in a race organized by the caliph Mansur. At a start of the race, as a rule, the horses were arranged side by side in a line, the straightness of that line being determined by stretching in front of them a long thread known as miqwas. It appears that during the period under review, two methods of horse-racing were in vogue: long distance races and hippodrome races. In the former a bamboo pole was fixed at a point far distant from the starting-post and the horsemen who first plucked it from the ground was considered to have won the race.

In a maydan (hippodrome) race the field (halba) consisted of ten horses. Seven tokens (qasab) were placed on lances set within an enclosure (hujra) large enough to hold only eight horses. The tokens were generally such articles as pieces of clothing or an embroidered garment, or purses containing silver. The first eight horses in the race were allowed to enter the enclosure. Seven received prizes according to their final placing in the race and only the eight was denied a prize, its admission to the enclosure being regarded as a sufficient reward. According to the order of finishing each of the ten horses was given a special name. Masudi in his Muruj al-Dhahab (8:359-72) and other writers have listed names:

1st : Sabiq, the winner.
2nd : Mutabarriz, the fighter, the champion.
3rd : Mujalli, the horse who, because of its success, removes his master’s sorrow.
4th : Musalli, so named because it sets the front of its head near the tail of the preceding horse.
5th : Musalli, because it brings pleasure to its master and dispels some of his anxieties.
6th : Tali, the follower, also known as hazi, the lucky-one.
7th : Murtah, the contented.
8th : Muammil, the hopeful.
9th : Latim, so called because it had sought to reach the goal, but had failed to do so.
10th : Sukkayt, the silenced, so called because its master was overcome by humiliation and was unable to talk about the race.

The Muslims used to fasten a rope around the last horse and place a monkey on its back with a whip in its hand to lash the horse, thus putting its master to shame and humiliation, while the owner of the winning horses were welcomed with ovation and received robes of honor (Muruj al-Dhahab, 7:371-2).

Before competing in a race, a horse had to undergo a period of training, termed tadmir or idmar, which lasted for some forty to sixty days. Special care was taken by the trainer to get the horse in good condition. It was supplied with fodder early in the morning and evening: with grass and barley for a week, and then the quantity of grass was gradually decreased, until its fodder consisted only of barley. The horse was ridden daily for a shawt (round or course) or two. The excess weight of the horse was sweated off under a few blankets, a process known as ijlal. Before being entered for a race, horses were generally given a trial run over the distance specified for the stake. If the horse was not over-exhausted and panting, it was considered well trained and fit for the competition.

With regard to the qualities which the Muslims prized in a horse, Asma’i states that a thorough-bred should have a high belly (batn) and a short back (zahr), long shanks to the front legs (tul al-wazifatain fil rijlain) and short shanks to the hind legs (qasr al-wazifatayn fil yadain). Other good signs of a horse were the blaze (ghurar), the stockings (tahjil) or white, markings above the hooves, and the dawair, tufts of hair growing in different directions. The shape of the upper parts (al-a’ali), the underside (al-safil), the fore-quarters (al-muqadim), and the hind-quarters (al-ma’akhir), its posture, its manner of walking and trotting, its speed and stamina: horse lovers took all these points into consideration. In addition, full knowledge of the principles of equitation was necessary for riders wishing to compete in a race. The advice given by mediaeval Arab writers to aspiring riders was simple. The main points observed by the riders were the firmness of the seat (thubat) and the evenness of the reins (taswiyat al-inan). There was no specific period for training in horse-riding. The firmness was acquired by riding bareback (alal ari), the rider being held in position by the grip of his thighs. As soon as the rider had some measure of experience, he was advised to use the saddle-and-fork seat. The rider had to practise riding over short and long distances regularly until he mastered the art and became an efficient rider. The Turks were regarded by Jahiz as the masters of horse-riding and of fighting with bows and arrows and other weapons.

During the Bahri period (1250-1382) there was a considerable number of hippodromes in Cairo and its vicinity, where horse training were carried out under Sultan Baybars (1260-1277). In the state, there were following hippodromes:-

1.                    al-Maydan al-Salihi built in 1243 by Sultan al-Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub.
2.                    al-Maydan al-Zahiri built by Sultan Baybars.
3.                    al-Maydan al-Kabak built by Sultan Baybars in 1267.
4.                    al-Maydan al-Birkat al-Fil built by Sultan Baybars in 1267.
5.                    al-Maydan al-Nasiri built by Sultan al-Nasir Mohammad in 1312.
6.                    al-Maydan al-Siryakus built by Sultan al-Nasir in 1320.
7.                    al-Maydan al-Mahari built by Sultan al-Nasir in 1323.

Kansuh al-Ghawri was the only Circassian Sultan who constructed hippodromes in 1503 in Egypt.

On the analogy of the legality of horse-racing, Imam Abu Hanifah and Imam Shafi regarded it as lawful to organize races and to place wagers on them. Imam Malik and Imam Ahmed bin Hanbal, however, discouraged races of camels, donkeys and mules, and regarded horse-racing as the only lawful hafir (hoof) game mentioned in the famous Prophetic traditions.

Syed Amir Ali in his Short History of the Saracens (London, 1955, p. 447) writes that, “Horse-racing has always been a passion with the Arabs, and was so in Baghdad, as in Damascus.” He further admits that the betting on horses is the only game permissible (mustahal) under the Muslim ecclesiastic law. (Ibid)

The Ismaili Imams in present age retained the interest of horse-breeding and racing, which they inherited from their forefathers. Imam Sultan Muhammad Shah, the 48th Imam said in his Memoirs of Aga Khan (London, 1954, p. 192) that, “My interest in horses, their breeding, training and racing, has been with me all my life and is of course also part of the tradition that I have inherited, the environment in which I was bred.” He further said, “Neither my grandfather, my father nor I have ever looked on our racing as simply a money-making matter, but as a sport which, by careful attention and thoughtful administration, could become self-supporting and a permanent source of pleasure not only for ourselves, as owners, but for thousands…indeed for million…who follow our colors on the turf; and we have considered our studs and our training stables as sources of wealth for the countries in which they are maintained and of practical usefulness from the point of view of preserving and raising the standard of bloodstock.” (Ibid. p. 189)

An intrepid horseman and hunter, Imam Hasan Ali Shah started the tradition of racing and breeding in Bombay. His stables housed the world’s finest Arabian blood and the stud in the valley of Nejd produced superb animals. No expense was too great to improve the bloodstock; leading trainers and jockeys were engaged. Bombay racecourse was one of the few public places where he showed himself – the stand from which he watched his horses were preserved by Bombay’s leading club. Later on, the interest of Imam Sultan Muhammad Shah in racing was developed in his very early years. As a mere child of three to four he was frequently taken to race meetings in a great coach of his grandfather

His success as an owner and breeder of horses in India was well known. Queen Victoria gave him a Royal Household badge for the enclosure at Ascot race-course. When he went to register his colors he found that this had already been done as a courtesy by one of his English racing friends. The colors turned out to be not green and red, which were not available, but green and chocolate instead. They became so successful that he never changed them although elsewhere his horses raced under green and red colors which his son and grandson adopted.

He was not an owner who took but a cursory interest in his actual stables. He displayed the utmost regard for every animal that is called upon to carry his green and chocolate hoops. More frequently than not, it was he who said how a difficult candidate should be ridden, in order that the best might be got out of him. His knowledge of horses was inbred and it was his love for the horse, coupled with a desire to raise the standard of horse-breeding in India, which first drew him to the Turf.

His well known colors were first carried on the racecourses of India, and one of his first major ventures in that country was an attempt to win the Viceroy’s Cup. His “Beadsman” won for him many races in Calcutta, Bombay and Poona. He however first came into prominence on the English Turf as the owner of the “Tetrarch” filly, “Mumtaz Mahal.”

“Ah!” said Imam Sultan Muhammad Shah sometimes, “is there anything so poetic and beautiful as a man riding a beautiful horse, riding it to perfection; the man and the horse like a centaur, carved out as one?” This remark fairly sums up his over-riding passion for sports, and explained why he was so devoted to this field. He was also a creative artist glorying in the creation of things of beauty. To plan the mating of finely bred horses and to watch horseflesh grow into a sleek, powerful affair is a source of infinite joy to him and gives him unbounded creative satisfaction. He raced for the love of the game, for the sheer joy of seeing a scientifically trained horse fight its way to victory. He explained his interest in horses in this way: “I am not an artist; I cannot paint pictures or make beautiful poetry. So I asked myself: How can I do some creative work? And found the answer in horses. There you choose and try and mate, and make an artificial creation.” To make a success of his racing industry he soon evolved the theory that scientific breeding was necessary and it was essential to employ the best brains and spare no expense in producing fine horses.

He treated his racing staff, people who helped him raise horses which were the envy of the world, very generously. After his Tulyar won the Derby in 1952, he declared that the 20,000 pounds of prize money would be divided among the winning jockey, the trainers and the stable boys. “They have worked a whole year for this success and deserve the money,” he said. “I am glad just to get my share of the honor and glory and, of course, the new value of the horse.”

In his interview in Clipper (October, 1979), the Present 49th Imam said, “Racing was totally foreign to my education and upbringing. But it had been a family tradition for three generations and no other relation could keep up the racing establishment. For me the two questions were: Could I find time – racing is time consuming – and could I maintain the level of success? There was no sense in keeping up a family tradition if it was going to decline into insignificance. After six months of difficult decision-making, I decided to go on.”

In his another interview with Roger Prioret (March, 1975), he said: “With the education I had, I was totally disinterested in horse-racing until the death of my grandfather and father. It held not interest for me. It was on my father’s death I asked myself this question: here is a traditional activity should I interrupt it or not? I had doubts of all the obligations, which I had taken over on my father’s death and asked myself if they were compatible with the interest I was able to muster for horses. And than I became determined. Finally I understood that it would be a pity for valid traditional enterprise to die after three generations. The stable continues therefore. I knew nothing of horses and have tried to learn. What was originally a sport has now become an industry bringing in very important sums.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral SIBHA Encyclopedia Topic

It is also pronounced as sebha, means rosary. The English word rosary is derived from the Latin, rosarium, meaning rose garden. In Persia and India, the rosary is known among the Muslims as tasbih, in Egypt, subha, meaning to praise or exalt. Among the Indians, it is called japa-mala, meaning muttering chaplet, or samarani, meaning remembrance. It is a string of beads or knotted cord, designed as an aid to the memory, providing convenient method for counting the recitation of the attributes of God.

The use of the rosary or tasbih seems to have been taken from the Koran: "O'believers! remember God, remember Him frequently" (33:41). Hence, there are certain traditions, mentioning the use of small stones, date-kernels etc. for counting eulogies, such as takbir, tahlil (pronouncing la ilaha illallah and tasbih). It is related by the women of Medina that the Prophet said to them: "Practice tasbih, tahlil and takdir, and count these eulogies on your fingers, for these will have to give you account" (Abu Daud, witr, bab 24). Ibn Sa'd (8:348) quotes that Fatima bint Hussain used to say eulogies aided by threads in which she made knots (bi-khuyut ma'kud fiha). Abu Daud quotes on the authority of Sa'd b. Abi Wakkas that he accompanied the Prophet who went to visit a woman, who counted her eulogies by means of kernels or small stones lying before her. The Prophet said to her: Shall I tell you what is easier and more profitable? "Glory to God" according to the number of what He has created in the earth; "glory to God" according to what He has created in the heavens; "glory to God" according to the number of what is between these; "glory to God" according to what He will create. And in the same way, Allah Akbar, al-Hamdu lillahi. (Ibid.)

Sufiya said: the Prophet entered while there were before me four thousand kernels which I used in reciting eulogies. I said: I use them in reciting eulogies. He answered: I will teach you a still larger number. Say "glory to God" according to the number of what He has created (Tirmizi, bab 103). To a different practice points the tradition according to which the Prophet counted the tasbih (Nasai, bab 97). The verb used her is akada, its being translated by "to count" is based upon the fact that the lexicons give it among others this meaning.

Later on, the above practice gave rise to the tradition of rosary among the Muslims. The date of the introduction of the rosary among the Muslims is uncertain. It has been however often assumed that it was borrowed in a fully developed form from India. Goldziher thinks it certain that the rosary came from India to western Asia. The use of the rosary is very widely spread, but its earliest home seems to be in India. There is however evidence for its having been used at first in Sufic circles.

The rosary consists of three groups of beads made of wood, bone, mother of pearls, etc. The groups are separated by two transversal beads of a large size (imam), or a terminal bead, while a much larger piece serves as a kind of handle (yad). The number of beads within each group varies (e.g. 33+33+34 or 33+33+31); in the latter case the imams and the yad are reckoned as beads. The sum total of a hundred is in accordance with the number of Allah and His 99 attributes being invoked by the believers. Thus, the rosary serves for the enumeration of these names; but it is also used for the counting of eulogies.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral SibhanaEncyclopedia Topic

Liked, loved

Various Sources SichanoEncyclopedia Topic

Grasp, hold

Various Sources SichanuEncyclopedia Topic

Pinched

Various Sources SidaqEncyclopedia Topic

True

Various Sources SidhEncyclopedia Topic

Success, prosperity

Various Sources SidhaEncyclopedia Topic

Was simplified, was completed, was successful

Various Sources SIDHANoun

1. Droit, 2. Suivre, partir. Sidha kaj = bonnes actions.

Heritage Dictionary of Ismailism, entry #810general SidhaqEncyclopedia Topic

Truth

Various Sources SidhyaEncyclopedia Topic

Completed, fulfilled

Various Sources SidneEncyclopedia Topic

Why?

Various Sources SieEncyclopedia Topic

The same

Various Sources Sie kajEncyclopedia Topic

For what, why?

Various Sources SIFFIN (BATAILLE)Name

(657 AD.) Battle on the plains of Siffin between H. Ali and Muawiya. The battle where copies of Quran were raised on the swords of Muawiya's soldiers, to come to a truce. The battle ended by a strategy imposed by Muawiya. See also. Adruh*

(657 AD.) Bataille entre Muawiya et H. Ali sur la plaine de Siffin. Prit fin par un stratagème imposé par Muawiya. V. aussi Adruh*

Heritage Dictionary of ismailism, entry #389general SIFFIN, BATTLE OFEncyclopedia Topic

"Apprehensive of Muawiya's designs against him, Ali considered Kufa suitably situated to check any encroachment in Iraq, therefore he made it his capital in 36/657, as topographically it was in the centre of his dominions. In Syria, disorder and incitement to commotion continued unabated. Uthman's shirt, besmeared with his blood and the chopped-off fingers of his wife, Naila, were exhibited from the pulpit. In this manner, Muawiya raised the entire country of Syria against Ali. Ultimately, both the parties, opposed to each other, converged on Siffin where their armies pitched their camps in 37/657. Even at this stage, Ali sent three men, viz. Bashir bin Amr bin Mahz Ansari, Saeed bin Qais Hamdani, and Shis bin Rabiee Tamini to Muawiya to induce him to settle for union, accord and coming together. According to Tabari (5:243), Muawiya replied that, "Go away from here, only the sword will decide between us."

With an army of some 80,000 strong, mainly recruited from Iraq, Ali set out from Kufa, planning to march through upper part of Iraq and invade Syria from the north. Ali, then pushed on to Raqa, on the left bank of the Euphrates. Here his troops came across the Syrian vanguard but it withdrew without engagement. The next problem was how to cross the river. Ali wanted to construct a bridge of boats, but the people of Raqa were hostile. It was only after Ali's general, Ashtar, had threatened them with death that they consented to help in building the bridge which was completed under the great difficulties. Ali's men then advanced along the right bank of the river in the direction of Aleppo. At Sur-Rum they had a brief skirmish with a Syrian outpost before they reached the plain of Siffin, where they found Muawiya's forces drawn up in strength and waiting for them.

Ali soon discovered that the Syrian positions controlled the water supply of the whole valley, and that there was no access to the river for his men. Muawiya obviously intended to use thirst to drive Ali's men to surrender. Muawiya had, however, underestimated the caliber of Ali's troops. Ali, however wrote a letter to Muawiya, which reads: "You have fore-stalled me in pitching the stables for the horses of your cavalry. Before I could declare war on you, you have declared war on us. It was bad move on your part to cut off our supply of water. It behoves you to allow us the natural supply of water. Failing this, we will be reluctantly forced to fight with you." On receiving this letter, Muawiya conferred with his advisers, who urged him not to yield up the advantage he had gained. Ali was therefore left with no alternative but to attack at full gallop and inflicted a crushing defeat on Muawiya's forces, and took charge of water supply. Now it was the turn of Ali's counsellors to urge control of the water supplies and for the soldiers of Muawiya to suffer the rigours of extreme thirst. But Ali ordered his men to allow the Syrians free access to the river, saying: "Our religion and ethical code does not permit us to stop water supply, and so pay our enemy back in his own coin. I do not want to follow the way of the ignorant people."

Ali's next step was, as usual, to try and come to a peaceful settlement. He deputed Bashir bin Amr, Sa'id bin Qais and Shabus bin Rabi, but Muawiya declined the offer to the delegates. Ali still did not give up hope but a second delegation, consisting of Adi bin Hatim, Yazid bin Qais, Ziyad bin Hufza and Shabis bin Rad, also failed to persuade Muawiya to come to an amicable settlement. For the next three months, Zilhaja, Muharram and Safar 36/May, June and July, 657, the armies remained in camps at Siffin, facing each other neither at war nor at peace. This period of negotiations lasted 110 days, during which time, the Arabian chroniclers maintain that Ali made as many overtures for peace as there were days. There was much heat in the discussions with Muawiya, and finally Ali was obliged once again to resort to arms on 8th Safar, 36/July 26, 657.

Historian Yaqubi (2:188) writes that Ali had 80,000 men, including 70 Companions who participated in Badr, 70 Companions who took oath at Hudaibia, and 400 prominent Ansars and Muhajirs; while Muawiya had 1,20,000 Syrians.

During the 110 days of negotiations, no fewer than 90 skirmishes were fought. Almost every day one tribal column would engage an enemy in combat, sometimes two or more engagements would be fought in one day. Heart-broken at the amount of Muslim blood that had already been shed in vain, Ali made one last bid for peace with Muawiya, at the start of the new year, but of no avail. At long last, Ali decided on a general engagement, and thus the battle of Siffin broke out on 8th Safar, 36/July 26, 657. A fierce battle was fought between them on the whole day, and it even continued in the darkness of that night, which is known as laila'tul harir (the night of clangour). William Muir writes in The Caliphate, its Rise and Fall (London, 1924, p. 261) that, "Both armies drawn out in entire array, fought till the shades of evening fell, neither having got the better. The following morning, the combat was renewed with great vigour. Ali posed himself in the centre with the flower of his troops from Medina, and the wings were formed, one of the warriors from Basra, the other of those from Kufa. Muawiya had a pavilion pitched on the field; and there, surrounded by five lines of his sworn body-guards, watched the day. Amr with a great weight of horse, bore down upon the Kufa wing which gave away; and Ali was exposed to imminent peril, both from thick showers of arrows and from close encounter. Reproaching the men of Kufa for their cowardice, the Caliph fought bravely, his unwieldy figure notwithstanding, sword in hand, and manfully withstood the charge. Ali's general Ashtar, at the head of 300 readers of (the Koran) led forward the other wing, which fell with fury on Muawiya's Turbaned body-guard. Four of its five ranks were cut to pieces, and Muawiya, bethinking himself of flight, had already called for his horse, when a martial couplet flashed in his mind, and he held his ground."

The following morning, the battle started up again. Edward Gibbon writes in The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire (London, 1848, 3:522) that, "The Caliph Ali displayed a superior character of valour and humanity. His troops were strictly enjoined to wait the first onset of the enemy, to spare their flying brethren, and to respect the bodies of the dead, and the chastity of the female captives. The ranks of the Syrians were broken by the charge of the hero, who was mounted on a piebald horse, and wielded with irresistible force, his ponderous and two edged sword."

Appalled by the carnage, Ali sent a message to Muawiya and challenged him to single combat, saying that whoever won should be the Caliph. In Gibbon's words, "Ali generously proposed to save the blood of the Muslims by a single combat; but his trembling rival declined the challenge as a sentence of inevitable death." Muawiya had indeed lost his nerve, and was about to flee from the field, a trick of his accomplice Amr bin al-A'as saved them from destruction.

Muawiya made his mercenaries tie copies of the Koran to their lances and flags, demanding for the decision of arbitration. Tabari (6:46) writes that, "The defeat started Muawiya in the face. Amr bin al-A'as, however, had a trick up his sleeve for this emergency, and it was the raising of the Koran aloft on spear-heads, and announcing, "Brethren, this Book of God alone will decide between you and us." It will be recalled that even before the commencement of the battle, Ali had invited Muawiya by sending his three men to turn to the Koran for a decision, but his offer was declined by telling, "Go away from here, only the sword will decide between us." (Tabari, 5:243). And now they sought the intercession of the Koran to escape the unpleasant consequences of an ignominious defeat. At this Ali came forward and expostulated his soldiers, saying, "It is an infamous stratagem and a nefarious device of Amr and Muawiya to cloak their defeat. Beware of the trick which they are playing. You should fight to a finish." But Ali's men refused to fight. Ali, with a great expectation of victory in sight, was therefore impelled to call a retreat.

Ali's supporters during the battle of Siffin were called Ahl-i Iraq, or Shi'at-i Ali, while his opponents became known as Ahl-i Sham, or Shiat'i Uthman and Shiat'i Muawiya. But Ali called them al-kasitun (those who act wrong), a word derived from the Koran that: "And as for the deviators, they shall be for the hell, a fuel." (72:15), where the word al-kasitun means the fuel of hell-fire.

It was decided that the Syrians and the residents of Kufa should nominate an arbitrator each to decide between Ali and Muawiya. The Syrians choice fell on Amr bin al-A'as who was the rational soul and spokesman of Muawiya. Ali wanted one of his sincere followers like Malik Ashtar or Abdullah bin Abbas to be appointed as an arbitrator for the people of Kufa, but the men of his own army strongly demurred, alleging that men like these two were, indeed, responsible for the war and, therefore, ineligible for that office of trust. They nominated Abu Musa al-Ashari as their arbitrator. Ali found it expedient to agree to this choice in order to ward off bloody dissensions in his army. According to Asadul Ghaba (3:246), Ali had, therefore, taken care to personally explain to the arbitrators, "You are arbiters on condition that you decide according to the Book of God, and if you are not so inclined you should not deem yourselves to be arbiters."

When the arbitrators assembled at Daumet-ul-Jandal, which lay midway between Kufa and Syria and had for that reason been selected as the place for the announcement of the decision, a series of daily meeting was arranged for them to discuss the matters in hand. When the time arrived for taking a decision about the caliphate, Amr bin al-A'as deluded Abu Musa al-Ashari into entertaining the opinion that they should deprive both Ali and Muawiya of the caliphate, and give to the Muslims the right to elect the caliph. Abu Musa al-Ashari also decided to act accordingly. As the time for announcing the verdict approached, the people belonging to both parties assembled. Amr bin al-A'as requested Abu Musa to take the lead in announcing the decision he favoured. Abu Musa al-Ashari agreed to open the proceedings, and said, "We have devised a solution after a good deal of thought and it may put an end to all contention and separatist tendencies. It is this. Both of us remove Ali as well as Muawiya from the caliphate. The Muslims are given the right to elect a new caliph in their places as they think best." As soon as he sat down after giving his award, Amr bin al-A'as sprang to his feet and addressing the gather said, "You have heard Abu Musa who represents Ali. He has deposed Ali from the caliphate. As the representative of Muawiya, I agree with him in the deposition of Ali, but I install Muawiya as the caliph." Here, an disorderly scene ensured in which Abu Musa al-Ashari cursed Amr bin al-A'as. The Syrians hailed the trick played by Amr bin al-A'as as a great diplomatic triumph. It should be noted that the above judgment, the arbitrators did not quote any authority of the Koran or Sunnah to justify deposing Ali.

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral SijeEncyclopedia Topic

To be complete, to be SuccessfuI

Various Sources SijeEncyclopedia Topic

Passes, cooks, dissolves

Various Sources SikhamanEncyclopedia Topic

Advice, teaching

Various Sources SilEncyclopedia Topic

Good deeds, attributes, virtues, true

Various Sources SilvantEncyclopedia Topic

Pious, chaste

Various Sources Silver Jubilee of the Present ImamEncyclopedia Topic

In 1982, the Ismailis celebrated the Silver Jubilee of the Present Imam. Jubilees are momentous occasions. The three jubilees celebrated by the 48th Imam resulted in the establishment of major new institutions for the material benefit and progress of the Ismailis. The Ismaili communities throughout the world looked forward to the Present Imam's first jubilee with much enthusiasm. Unlike his grandfather, the Present Imam did not wish to be weighed in silver. He however used the occasion to introduce new priorities and directions for the Ismailis to pursue for their own progress as well as for the progress of the world at large, particularly the third world.

Sunday, July 11, 1982 was one such day that will remain forever in the memories of those who came from far and wide: from the remotest areas of the globe to Aiglemont, to convey the felicitations and express the happiness of millions of the Ismailis to their Imam. It was on this day exactly 25 years ago, the Imam acceded to the throne of Imamate. Leaders of the jamats had come representing Bangladesh, Canada, Europe, India, Kuwait, Kenya, Malagasy Republic, the Middle East, Malaysia, Pakistan, Portugal, Rwanda, Brundi, Syria, Singapore, South Africa, Tanzania, the United Kingdom, the United States and Zaire

Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajddingeneral Sim shedheEncyclopedia Topic

Near the border

Various Sources SINA, ABOU ALIName

See. AVICENNA

V. AVICENNE - Ibn Sina

Heritage Dictionary of ismailism, entry #176general SINA, IBNName

370AH/980-428AH/1037 Abu Ali Husseyn b. Abdullah ibn Sina. Famous Fatimide Ismaili philosopher and doctor. He was born in Asfahan (Boukhara), his mother's name was Sitara. His famous book, "Canon of Medicine" set the medical standars in Europe for 500 years. He also wrote the book: "The illuminative philosophy" See Nurum Mubin: pp. 187, 188, 194, 214. At age 17, he cured the Prince Samanide ibn Mansur. He also compiled "Kitab al-Insaf"(28,000questions in 20 vol.) By 18 years, he had read all books available in his time. For detailed English text on ABU ALI IBN SINA click here

370AH/980-428AH/1037 Abu Ali Husseyn b. Abdullah ibn Sina. Célèbre philosophe et médecin ismaélien fâtimide ayant pour mère Sitara. Son "Canon de la médecine" fut employé comme standard pendant 500 ans en Europe. Auteur de "la philosophie illuminative". Nurum Mubin: pp 187, 188, 194, 214. Né à Asfahan (Boukhara). Guérit le prince samanide ibn Mansur à l'âge de 17 ans. Rédigeat "Kitab al-Insaf"(28,000 questions en 20 vol.) A 18 ans, il avait tout lu.

Heritage Dictionary of ismailism, entry #878general SINAN, RASHID AL-DINName

550AH/1155-697AH/1210. A special emissary who, like a Dai, preached Ismailism in Syria. In reality he was Imam Ala Mohammed incognito according to Mustafa Ghaleb in "Ismailis of Syria" and the text ofA.Tamir "Sinan Rashidal-Din". Sinan proclaimed the Great Resurrection in Syria.He had friendly relations with Christians and Jews. He had to fight against Saladin. For detailed English text on RASHID AL-DIN SINAN click here

550AH/1155-697AH/1210. Personnage secret connu comme Dai qui prit le pouvoir en Syrie. En réalité, Imam Ala Mohammed. Ghaleb "Ismailis of Syria", et le texte de A. Tamir "Sinan Rashidal-Din". Proclama la Grande Résurrection en Syrie. Rapports amicaux avec les Croisés, les Templiers. Dut se battre contre Saladin.

Heritage Dictionary of ismailism, entry #882general SinchaEncyclopedia Topic

Gave water, irrigated

Various Sources SinchanEncyclopedia Topic

Irrigate, water

Various Sources SinchanharEncyclopedia Topic

One who saturates, one who irrigates

Various Sources SinchanharaEncyclopedia Topic

One who irrigates, one who waters

Various Sources SincheEncyclopedia Topic

Irrigates, gives water, creates

Various Sources SinchsheEncyclopedia Topic

Will water, will irrigate

Various Sources SingasamEncyclopedia Topic

Royal throne

Various Sources SingasanEncyclopedia Topic

Throne

Various Sources SingdieEncyclopedia Topic

Twisted, entwined

Various Sources SinghasanEncyclopedia Topic

Throne

Various Sources SingiEncyclopedia Topic

Conch-shell

Various Sources SingniEncyclopedia Topic

Horn (used as wind instrument)

Various Sources Sinh / SinhdaEncyclopedia Topic

Lion

Various Sources SinhasanEncyclopedia Topic

Throne

Various Sources SInTCHaNoun

Création.

Heritage Dictionary of Ismailism, entry #811general SInTCHaNHARNoun

Créateur, démiurge.

Heritage Dictionary of Ismailism, entry #812general