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Hasan bin Sabbah (1034-1124) took possession of the fort of Alamut in Iran in 1090. His immediate concerns were to refortify Alamut, provide for it food and water supply, irrigate the field in the valley, acquire adjacent castles, erect forts at strategic points, institute economic and social reforms and unite the Ismailis by bonds of fraternity. Thus, he succeeded to establish the Nizarid Ismailis rule in Alamut. It appears from the fragments of the historical sources that, the Ismailis continued green colour as their standard, and Hasan bin Sabbah is reported to have hoisted it for the first time on the summit of the Alamut.

Malik Shah (d. 1092), the Seljukid ruler in Iran became highly perturbed when he heard the foundation of the Alamut's rule, and hatched animosity with the Ismailis. Soon afterwards, Alamut came to be raided by the Seljukid forces, carrying their imperial banner contained black ground with the figure of a dragon or an eagle. The enemies of the Ismailis desired to hoist their banner on Alamut through military actions, but the Ismaili warriors warded off their attacks all the times and continued to hoist their banner on Alamut.

On August 8, 1164, Imam Hasan Ala Zikrihi's Salam (1162-1166) commemorated a historical occasion of qiyamat-i qubra in Alamut. According to "Jamiut Tawarikh" (compiled in 1310 A.D.), four large banners of four colours, white, red, yellow and green were set up at the four corners of the pulpit. "Haft Bab-i Baba Sayyid'na" (comp. in 1200 A.D.) writes that Hasan bin Sabbah had foretold the advent of qiyamat-i qubra, and said, "When the Imam appears, he will sacrifice a camel, and bring forth a red standard." It implies that the virtual penetration of red colour in the Ismaili tradition took place in the period of Alamut.

The Ismaili flag also reflected superiority and a peak of glory of the Alamut rule. In 1213, the mother of Imam Jalaluddin Hasan (1210-1221) went on the pilgrimage to Mecca under the patronage of the Abbasid Caliph Nasir (1180-1225), who received her with great pomp and deference. On that occasion, the Abbasid Caliph placed the flag of Khwarazamshah behind that of the Ismailis in the caravan of the pilgrims.

Imam Radi Abdullah (840-881) had sent his dais in all directions from Syria to propagate Ismailism. The most acclaimed among them was Ibn Hawshab (d. 914), who was sent to Yamen in 880. He made a large conversion and established an Ismaili rule. He took possession of a stronghold on a hillock and made it his headquarters. We have rich historical evidences that he hoisted the green banner at his headquarters, bearing the Koranic verse on it. The Ismaili mission reached the apex of its influence in Yamen from where Ibn Hawshab dispatched many dais to the farthest corners. Meanwhile, Abu Abdullah al-Shi'i (d. 911) had also embraced Ismailism, whom the Imam sent to Yamen for further training. Later on, he was sent to Maghrib in 892. He conquered almost whole Maghrib and routed the Aghlabid rule of 112 years. He captured Raqada and made it his headquarters on March 25, 909. He started the Fatimid khutba and struck coins. He hoisted most significantly the Fatimid banner. Ibn Hammad (d. 1230) writes in "Akhbar al-Muluk Bani Ubayd wa Siyaratihim" (Paris, 1927, pp. 7-8) that Abu Abdullah also got his slogans inscribed on banners, weapons, trapping and seals. The banner had an inscription of the Koranic verse: "Soon shall the hosts be routed, and they shall turn their backs." (54:45).

The Fatimids adopted green as the colour of their standard. According to "American Educator" (New York, 1973, 7th vol., p. 131), "Green is frequently found in Arab flags because this colour was taken by the Fatimite dynasty, which ruled most of north Africa." It is also mentioned in "The New Encyclopaedia Britannica" (15th ed., 4th vol., p. 812) that, "Green was the colour of the Fatimid dynasty and eventually it became the colour of Islam."

Makrizi (d. 1442) writes in "al-Khitat" (Cairo, 1959, 1st vol., p. 23) that, "During the Caliphate of the Fatimids, a separate department of making banners for different occasions had been erected, known as khazinat al-bunud (store of banners). The word bunud (pl. of band) was used for banner or flag. These banners were used during battles and festive occasions, wherein the Koranic verses were written. The total cost of the department was 80,000 dinars per year." The chief banner was known as "liwa'i hamd" which had been used by Ali bin Abu Talib in the battles, and was the favourite banner of the Fatimid Imams. One of the emblems of royal authority was the outfit (alah), the display of banners and flags.

The Fatimids divided their armies into smaller units. This arrangment was called "the battle order" (ta'biyah). In front of the Commander stood one army with its own battle lines, its own general and flag. It was called "the advance guard". Then, to the right of the place where the Commander was, stood another army, called "the right flank". The army on left side was called "the left flank". Then, there was another army behind the whole armies, called "the rear guard"(saqa). Separate from them and in front of the centre went the vanguard (jalishiya) with its own commander and flag.

Addressing to the people of Egypt, Hasan Husni Abd al-Wahhab writes in "Tarikh al-Adab al-Tunisi" (Tunis, 1968, p. 83) that Imam Qaim (934-946) said in his poem that:-

their banner is my grandfather's
their call my father's
and their belief is mine, near and far.

Ibn Hammad (d. 1230) writes in "Akhbar al-Muluk Bani Ubayd wa Siyaratihim" (Paris, 1927, p. 57) that Imam Mansur (946-952) returned to the capital in triumph soon after the final defeat of Abu Yazid in 948. He was met in Kairwan by the notables mounted on fine horses and carrying drums and green flags.

When the Fatimid general Jawhar made his successful footing on the soil of Egypt on July 4, 969 as a conqueror, he sent his representative ahead in the city with a white flag. Stanley Lane Poole writes in "History of Egypt" (London, 1914, p. 102) that, "Jawhar, like his master, always disposed to a politic leniency, renewed his former promises, and granted a complete amnesty to all who submitted. A herald bearing a white flag rode through the streets of Fustat, proclaiming the amnesty and forbiding pillage and on August 5, the Fatimid army, with full pomp of drums and banners, entered the capital."

Jawdhar al-Azizi (d. 974) writes in "Sirat al-Ustadh Jawdhar" (p. 83) that when Imam Muizz (952-975) ascended in 952, he delivered a sermon in his inaugural appearance that he and his people would be allowed to visit the tomb of the Prophet in Medina, to mount his minbar, to visit his house, to accomplish the pilgrimage to Mecca, and to stand with banners unfurled at the illustrious sacred places.

In 977, when Imam al-Aziz (975-996) set out to conquer Syria, the outfit (alah) of the Fatimids was composed of 500 banners and 500 trumpets. It was a grand procession in front of the Fatimid army when marching towards the enemies. B.J. Beshir writes in "Fatimid Military Organisation" (Der Islam 55, 1978, pp. 51-2) that, "Spies and guerillas were to be sent in front of the army; when the army encamped, trenches were dug. Before marching, standards, flags and emblems were flown."

Jaylam bin Shayban founded a Fatimid vassal state in Sind with its base at Multan before 968. He is reported to have introduced the Fatimid coins, and recited the Fatimid khutba. He reported to Imam Muizz in Cairo, how he succeeded to establish the Fatimid vassal state. The Imam replied him in 968. The letter of the Imam is cited in "Uyun'l Akhbar" (6th vol., p. 219). In the concluding paragraph of the letter, the Imam said, "We have sent you some of our banners, which you can unfurl in case of need. Whenever they are unfurled over the heads of the believers, God increases their glory by the banners and hails them with His assistance; on the other hand, when they are unfurled over the heads of the unbelievers, the banners humiliate their pride and overwhelm them by the power of God, Who is our Benefactor." (The letter written on Sunday, the 19th of Ramzan, of the year 354/or 968).

Thus, the Fatimid green flag began to be flown in Sind. The Ismaili state however survived until 1005, when Mehmud of Ghazna invaded Multan. In 1010, Mehmud once again spurred his horses towards Multan and launched a terrible massacre and demolished the Ismaili rule. The surviving Ismailis fled to Mansurah, where they hoisted the Ismaili flag once again until 1025, when Mehmud destroyed their power. The Ismaili states in Multan and Mansurah were followed by the Sumra rule in lower Sind. The Sumra dynasty rose as an Ismaili power and proclaimed their rule in 1052 and continued to flutter the Ismaili flag till 1361.

In 1067, the Turkish mercenaries had drained the Fatimid treasury at the command of Nasir ad-Dawla in the period of Imam Mustansir billah (1036-1095). The works of art and valuables of all sorts in the palace were sold to satisfy their demands. Lane Poole writes in "History of Egypt" (London, 1914, pp. 148-9) that, "Yet all these exquisite and priceless works of art had been dissipated among the barbarous Turks during the tyranny of Nasir ad-Dawla. The costly collections of the "Treasury of Flags" were destroyed by a torch dropped by a follower of one of the Turkish goths, a collection which had been formed at a cost of 70,0000 dinars."

It is to be noted that three kinds of public holiday celebrations involved the participation of the Imam in Fatimid Egypt, such as the general Islamic holidays, Ismaili holidays and local Egyptian festivals of the agriculture calender. The Ismaili holidays included Navroz, birthday of Ali, Fatima, Hasan, Hussain and the Imam of the age; and Eid-i Ghadir. In all these occasions, the city of Cairo was decorated with green Fatimid flags and illuminations.

Makrizi (d. 1442), Ibn Taghribirdi (d. 1469) and Kalkashandi (d. 1418) had described the pomp of the Fatimid procession in which the Imam himself participated during the New Year's Day. From the descriptions, the procession was really imposing, and the sight was fascinating when it advanced through the streets of Cairo with houses covered with spectators, with noise and commotion which filled the city. The passage abounds in various expressions and names of different objects, varities of cloth, ornaments, banners, etc. The procession included the display of the Fatimid banners. The issuing of all these articles for the procession was usually finished by the 28th of the month of Zul-hijja, and on the morning of the 29th the Imam personally visited a special place at which his chargers were produced for his inspection. He rode across the palace ground to the gate called Bab al-Mulk, where the inspection ground was situated, where a reheral of the procession was demonstrated before the Imam.

When the procession was finally formed, the governor of Cairo, with his men, cleared the streets from the crowd, so that the procession could advance without hindrance.

While riding in the procession, the Imam had exclusive right to be accompanied by two "banners of glory" as they were called. They were small, made of white silk embroidered with gold. They were carried folded. There were also twenty one coloured banners, with inscriptions made in colours different from the banner itself. They measured two by one and a half yards, and were fixed on long spears.

But the most important were two special flags which were carried before all these flags, consisted of a hollow golden lion's head with opened mouth, fixed between two ends of a crescent the middle part of which formed the head of a spear. To the side which constituted the neck of the lion's head a long bag of yellow or red dibaj was affixed. While riding against the wind, the air would pass through the mouth of the lion's head and inflat the bag. These banners were carried by two riding officials.

On that occasion, special silver spears were issued to the suites of various Wazirs and high ranking military officers, in infantry and cavalry. The Treasury department next issued a hundred litters of excellent work covered with precious brocade, of red or yellow colour, called dibaj, kurbubi and siklatun. The straps with which the litters were fixed were richly ornamented with silver. Every Wazir received ten spears and ten litters of this kind. He also received two small flags (liwa) which were left folded. In the procession these were carried before the Wazir while similar flags were carried behind military officers.

After the Wazirs various officials received one, two, three or four spears and litters, depending on his rank. The Wazir, in addition, also received ten large flags made of a cloth called dabik. These flags were adjusted to spears headed with balls and crescents. The military officers had large flags of silk on spears with copper heads, gilded and hollow inside.

Behind the Imam a unit of guards was followed by ten executionirs who carried the swords used for decapitation. Then there were more guards, behind whom the Wazir was riding accompanied by a unit of soldiers in coats of mail, 500 strong. Then followed the musicians with their drums, flutes, etc. Then units of various regiments, over 4000 preceded by the two with the heads of the lions. Behind them again were troops, Turks, Daylamites, Kurds, Ghuzz, etc., archers, mariners, and others.

The Islamic state of Medina continued the old Arab custom. In this context, the sources mention two synonyms, i.e., liwa (flag) and rayah (standard). It was liwa (pl alwiyah) which was ordinarily used in all expeditions; but ruyat (pl. of rayah) were used in all the battles. The Islamic armies under the Prophet was drawn from various tribes. Each unit consisted of a tribe, usually fighting under its own chief. Each tribe had its own tribal banner borne aloft by its bravest champion.

This office or military post retained its tribal character through out the period of the Prophet. Nevertheless, the Prophet representing the central authority, had his own banner, black or mostly green in colour. Reuben Levy writes in "The Social Structure of Islam" (Cambridge, 1962, pp. 434-5) that, "Flags had another significance in Muslim warfare. Each tribe had its own and regarded it as the ralling centre in battle, for near it was the commander." When the Prophet ordered an expedition in Medina, no call was made aloud or any trumpet was blown, but he planted his green banner in the mosque to rally the Muslims under it.

Statistics show that the military organisation in the period of the Prophet took its due course to develop. He appointed a number of military officiers and functionaries as and when the strategic and military demands of the time required. With the passage of time, he appointed the officers and functionaries included the commanders of the expeditions (umara' al-saraya), wing-officers (umara' al-maimanah), scouts (tali'ah), spies (uyun), guides (dalil), officers to look after booty and the prisoners of war (ashab al-maghanim wa al-asara), officers for weapons and horses (ashab al-silah wa al-faras), body-guards (ashab al-haras), and the standard-bearers (sahib al-liwa wa al-rayah) etc. Amar bin Yasir relates that the Prophet always liked that every person should fight under the banner of his own unit of forces.

Ibn Abbas narrates that the colour of the Prophet's flag was green and of standard white. During the battle of Badr, three different banners however were used; the bigger one was in the hands of Ali bin Abu Talib, containing the symbol of an eagle (ukab), representing the force of the Muhajirin. In this connection, Nasir Khusaro (1003-1088) writes in his couplets (vide "Nasir-i Khusraw Forty Poems from the Divan" tr. By P.L. Wilson and Gholam Reza Aavani, Tehran, 1977, p. 121) that:-

Who slept in Prophet's bed, while the Messenger fled
from his enemies in the migration? to whom the Prophet
gave the banner at the battle of Badr when all others
quailed? the lion, the warrior,
whom God has made all heroes to love?

While the one leading the Ansar was assigned to Sa'd bin Mu'adh. Waqidi (d.822) writes in "Kitab al-Maghazi" (London, 1966, p. 226) that the white banner was given to Musab bin Umayr of the clan of Abdul Dar. He carried the Prophet's white banner in Badr and Uhud in memory of the old privilege of the clan of Abdul Dar. The Prophet however executed overall as a supreme commander in the battle. On the other hand, the Meccans likewise had three banners, one of which was born by Talha bin Abi Talha, the other by Abu Ghazyr bin Umayr, and the third by Nassar bin Harith, all of whom were the descendants of Abdul Dar.

In the battle of Uhud, the Meccans mobilized all their powers and resources and came out to avenge the deaths of their men fallen in the battle of Badr. The Meccans filled the battlefield with the victims of fighting and the banner of the Muslims fell from the hands of Musab bin Umayr when he died bravely. The Prophet called Ali to take over as a standard-bearer. In one hand, he held the banner, and in the other that favious sword Dhulfikar. Thus, Ali took over the banner which went up unfurled in his hand during the fighting which had reached its climax by that time.

Tabari (d. 923) writes in "Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk" (Cairo, 1960, 2nd vol., p. 402) that when the Prophet sent his first expedition under the command of his uncle, Hamza towards Sif al-Bahr at the western coast in 629 with 30 soldiers, he also sent one standard-bearer with him. Tabari (2nd vol., p. 402) further writes that, "The importance of the symbol may be gauged from the prominence given to the names of those who bore the Prophet's banner and that of the Ansar at the battle of Badr, also of the standard-bearers in other later engagements. The phrase used for sending out an expedition is to bind on a banner, and the granting of a banner was regarded as the sign of conferring command."

In the battle of Khaibar in 629, the Prophet declared a day before an operation, "Tomorrow, I will hand over the banner of Islamic army to such a person who is an impetuous warrior and not an absconder; he befriends God and His Apostle and is also befriended by them. God is sure to grant victory on his hands." Every one of the Prophet's Companions was anxious to be signalised on the morrow as the friend of God and His Prophet. They passed the night in great anxiety as to which one would prove to be the blessed one. Sa'd bin Abi Waqqas narrates, "I knelt down opposite to the Prophet, and then rose, hoping to obtain the banner." The Prophet however asked, "Where is Ali bin Abu Talib? Bring him here." In short, Ali had been given the charge to lead the assault. The green Islamic banner which the Prophet had planted before his camp besides the tree where it lay through the night, heavy with dew, flew limpidly. The Prophet pulled the banner out from the ground, raised it, and after shaking it three times, he confided it into the right hand of Ali, saying, "Take this standard and march on with it until God grant you victory." Hubab al-Munzir and Sa'd bin Ubaidah also followed Ali with another banners. For the first time, three distinct banners were used instead of the small pennants hitherto sported in battle.

Jabir bin Abdullah narrates that the Holy Prophet entered in Mecca with white flags at the head of the army. "Islamic Shi'ite Encyclopaedia" (Beirut, 1970, 2nd vol., p. 127) writes that on that memorable day, the banner of Islam was carried by the Ansar leader, Sa'd bin Abadah at the head of the army. No sooner did he see the outskirts of Mecca than his mind was flooded with the memories of the Qoraish hostality towards the Prophet and his followers. He cried out in emotion, "This day is the day of massacre. Today it is permitted to kill in the Kaba." When the Companions heard this cry, they became terrified and hurried to the Prophet and related to him the words of Sa'd. The Prophet called Ali and said, "Go to Sa'd immediately and take the banner from him. You should be the first one to enter Mecca." Tabari (2nd vol., p. 445) writes that, "The utterance of Sa'd bin Abadah was defeating the objective of the Prophet, who intended to hoist Islamic banner in Mecca without bloodshed, therefore, he immediately removed Sa'd and designated Ali as his standard-bearer." This errand was the entry of Mecca with modesty, peace and humble attitude of the Muslims without massacre.

In 629, the Prophet mustered a force of 3000 men at the command of Zaid bin Harith for the Mauta expedition against Shurahbil bin Amir, the Ghassanid governor in Syria. During the thick of the battle, the Muslims found themselves in presence of a force several times more numerous than themselves. Zaid bin Harith seizing the banner, led the charge of the Muslims, plunging into the midst of the enemy ranks until he fell transfixed by their spears. Seeing him fall from his horse, Jafar Taiyar rushed timely to grab the banner from the dying Zaid, and raised it aloft to command the Muslim force. The enemies closed in on the heroic Jafar, who was soon covered with wounds. Fighting at close quarters, Jafar was struck from the side at first on his right hand by the enemies. As the bleeding hand, hung to the flimsy muscles, he took the sword in his left hand, pressing the banner to the saddle. Then the left hand was cut off and as his sword fell, Jafar took the banner from the saddle with the stumps of his bleeding hands. When both his hands were cut off gripping the banner, he still stood firm holding the staff between his two stumps, until the enemies struck him a mortal blow. As Jafar fell from the horse in that blood soaked field of Mauta, Abdullah bin Rawaha immediately took the banner from the slain man. Abdullah bin Rawaha also met death in the encounter. Khalid bin Walid assumed control on that juncture. He took the banner and methodically withdrew from the field with the Muslim force and returned to Medina.

It was the common practice that the signal for the attack was given by the waving of the flags or by trumpet blast or both. Baladhuri writes in "Futuh al-Buldan" (ed. M.J. de Goeje, Leyden, 1866, p. 303) that during the battle of Nihawand, Noman bin Muqaran, the amil said, "I noticed that when the Prophet failed to give battle in the morning he would wait until the sun set and the wind blew." He added: "I shall now shake the banner I carry three times. At the first shake let each man perform his ablutions and satisfy his natural wants; at the second each attend to his sword and prepare himself. When the third shake comes, charge; and let no man heed his neighbour."

According to Waqidi (p. 995), the Prophet appointed Abu Bakr over the camp (askar) and conferred upon him his greatest standard (liwa'hu al'azam) just before the army set out for Tabuk, which was the last campaign commanded by the Prophet in 630 A.D.

In sum, during the eight years of fighting, there had been almost 101 expeditions (sariyah, pl. sarayah) and battles (ghazwah, pl. ghazawat), in which 27 were commanded himself by the Prophet, and remaining 74 were led by other persons he nominated. The Prophet is reported to have appointed about 86 standard-bearers (sahib al-liwa wal-rayah) in Medina from among 9 Arabian tribes during the expeditions and battles. The most important from among the Qoraish was Ali, who was assigned the banners as many as ten times. The other standard-bearers were Zubayr bin Awwam of Asad, Hamza bin Abd al-Muttalib of Hashim, Sa'd bin Abi Waqqas of Zuhrarh, Musab bin Umayr of Abdul Dar, Abu Bakr of Taym and Umar bin Khattab of Adi. From among the Khazraj tribe, the famous standard- bearers were Sa'd bin Ubaidah, Hubab al-Munzir, Zaid bin Thabit and Umarah bin Hazm. Among the Aws tribe were Sa'd bin Mu'az and Usayd bin al-Huzayr, etc.

According to "The Social Structure of Islam" (London, 1957, p. 3), "Before his death in A.D. 632, Muhammad had gathered to his banner most of the inhabitants of Arabia. The exceptions were Jews and a few Christians and Magians, whom he permitted to remain in their own faith provided they recognised his political overlordship by the payment of a poll-tax."

[acidfree:806] One rare banner preserved in the Topkapi Saray Museum at Istanbul, called as-Sinjaqu 'sh-Sharif, is said to be a most sacred emblem. It is the original standard of the Prophet. It is made of four layers of silk, the top-most of which is green, those below being composed of cloth, embroidered with gold. Its entire length is twelve feet.

Ali bin Abu Talib had assigned the duty of the standard-bearer to his another son, Ibn al-Hanafiya (642-700) during the battle of Camel in 656 A.D. It is related that he hesitated at first to bear his father's banner, but his father said to him, "Do you have doubts concerning an army commanded by me?" These words firmly decided him, and he took charge of the standard. While giving the banner to Ibn al-Hanafiya, his father is further reported to have said that, "Mountain may move from their position, but you should not move from yours. Press your teeth. Lend your head to God. Fix your feet in the ground. Have your eye on the remotest foe and close your eyes (to their numerical majority). And keep sure that succour is but from God, the glorified." (vide "Nahjul Balagha", Qum, 1981, sermon no. 11, p. 78). Ibn Khallikan (d. 1282) writes in his "Wafayat al-A'yan" (Paris, 1838, 2nd vol., p. 576) that once he was asked how it happened that his father exopsed him to danger and thrust him into difficulties, while he never risked his other sons, Hasan and Hussain. To this he replied, "Hasan and Hussain are his two eyes, and I am his hands, and protect his eyes with his hands."

Aisha advocated march on Basra in 656 to muster her force against Ali. When it was informed, Ali bin Abu Talib set out with his force. When he pitched his camp at Rabaza, near Basra, a contingent of Ansars appeared foremost. Its banner was held by Abu Ayub Ansari. Then another contingent came in sight to join Ali. Its banner was borne by Abu Qatada bin Rabyee. The next contingent appeared, whose banner was in the hand of Qais bin Sa'd bin Idadah. Then again followed a contingent of the Companions of the Prophet, whose standard-bearer was Qathm bin Abbas. After passing of a few contingents, a huge multitude of the young combatants was seen, wherein there was such a large number of spears that they were overlapping and flags of numerous colours were flying. Among them a big and lofty banner was seen with distinctive features.

One should think of the admonitions and encouragement that Ali bin Abu Talib gave his soldiers on the day of Siffin in 657 A.D. According to Tabari (1st vol., p. 3290) and Ibn Athir (d. 1233)in "Kamil fi al-Tarikh" (Beirut, 1965, 3rd vol., p. 150) that Ali said in one of his speeches that:-

Straighten out your lines like a strongly constructed building.
Place the armed men in front, and those who are unarmed in the rear.
Keep (something) wrapped around the tips of the spears. This preserves the sharpness of points.
Keep the eyes down. This keeps the soul more concentrated and gives great peace to the heart.
Do not hold your flags inclined and do not remove them. Place them in the hands only of those among you who are brave.

While examining the sermon no. 122 of "Nahjul Balagha" (p. 214), it appears that Ali bin Abu Talib also imparted his soldiers further in these words:- "Do not let your banner bend down, nor leave it alone. Do not give it to any one except the brave and the defenders of honour among you, because they alone endure befalling of troubles, they surround the banners and encircle them from both their sides, their rear and their front."
In the battle of Siffin, Malik Ashtar was in command of the horsemen and Ammar bin Yasir of the foot soldiers of Kufa, while Suhail bin Hunif commanded the horsemen and Qais bin Sa'd was the commander of the foot soldiers of Basra. Hashim bin Utba, among them, was the standard-bearer. Hashim bin Utba fell in the encounter, and was killed by Harith bin Munzir, therefore, the banner of the contingents was taken over by his son, Abdullah. On other side, the standard-bearer of the Syrian army led by Muawiya was Abul A'awar.

Abbas (645-680), the step-brother of Imam Hussain (661-680)was charged the duty of the standard-bearer in the battle of Karbala, who became also known as Abbas Alambardar (Abbas, the standard-bearer). It is recounted that he had the banner of the Prophet, which was borne by Ali bin Abu Talib during the assault of Khaibar, and since then the green banner became the heir'loom in the progeny of Ali bin Abu Talib.

Abbas bore the banner for one day on the tenth and last day of the battle of Karbala. He proceeded towards river Euphrates to bring some water for his niece, Sakina. He took the flying banner in one hand, in the second a spear and the water-bag on the shoulder. He penetrated the lines of the enemies and jumped into the river alongwith his horse and filled the water-bag. Suddenly, an enemy hurled a blow from behind with which his right hand was cut. He immediately caught the spear in his left hand, and the banner he pressed in the armpit, and set the water-bag aright. A tyrant made a thrust at him and separated his second hand. On that juncture, Abbas held the spear and the water-bag in his front teeth with the banner pressing in armpit wherefrom his hand was cut down. In sum, Abbas sacrificed his life in the battle by defending the prestige of green banner of Islam. The tradition further has it that Imam Hussain brought the banner back to his tent. Later on, it was plundered in the booty and sent to Yazid in Damascus. When the family of Imam Hussain left Damascus for Medina after a year, the sacred banner was handed over to Bashir bin Noman, who held it and entered Medina with Imam's family.

The banner remained inactive in Medina with Imam Zayn al-Abidin (680-713), who remained aloof from the politics. Meanwhile, a storm of grief and anger raged in every heart in the Muslim world because of the tragical event of Karbala. It stirred religious and moral sentiments among the Muslims. For seeking vengeance for the blood of Imam Hussain, numerous movements sprouted out in Kufa. Among them, the movement of Mukhtar Thaqafi (622-687) against the Umayyads was prominent. He mustered a large force and turned to Imam Zayn al-Abidin, showing his loyalty and offered the Imam to take command of his movement. The Imam refused and declared him publicly to be a liar who was trying to exploit the cause of Ahl-al-Bait for his own interests. Mukhtar also failed to obtain the green banner possessed by the Imam, since it was aslo a next potential instrument to advance his propaganda in procuring large support of the Muslims. It is also said that Suleman Surad (d. 684), the head of the another movement in Kufa, called Tawwabun (penitents) also tried in vain to have that banner for making his movement effectual against the Umayyads.

The green was a favourite colour of the Holy Prophet, and so was his banner. The tragic event of Karbala however infused a new fervour and the red colour symbolizing sacrifice for the cause of religion, also began to be used. Henceforward, the flag played an important role in Islam. The sayf and kalam were the terms denoting a military standard and alam became a religious flag. In Egypt, the word liwa was used for the small banner, and rayah for big one.

We may pause here for a while to note a key point that the Abbasids used the black colour, therefore, they were also known as al-musawwidah (the black ones), and their black standard became so famous that, in T'ang dynasty (618-907) of China, the Abbasids empire was also known as the "Black Robe Arabs" (Hei-i Ta-shih). Abul Faraj Ispahani writes in "Kitab al-Aghani" (3rd vol., p. 1012) that, "Black, during the rule of caliph Mansur, had become the colour prescribed for the officials serving the Abbasid regime. Black remained in fashion until caliph Mamun, who ordered in 815 that green should become the official colour. This sudden change was of brief duration, black coming once more after one year."

The Alids who were against the Abbasids assumed the white colour, and were known as al-mubayyidah (the white ones). The Khurramiyya adoped red colour, known as Muhammira or Surkh Jamagan (wearers of red).

Warfare in pre-Islamic Arabia was waged regularly for a certain part of each year as an ordinary part of the routine of tribal life, the ostensible motive being the desire for plunder or revenge. In the Meccan oligarchy the clan of Abdul Dar of Qoraish enjoyed the privilege of holding the tribal standard. Before the advent of Islam, the Qoraish waged a war on another tribe; they received from the hands of Qassi (d. 480) the liwa, a piece of white cloth, which Qassi himself had attached to a lance. In those days, the banner of war, offensive or defensive was hoisted in the dar al-nadwah (council chamber); this was the chief prerogative of Qassi. The dar al-nadwah was a kind of town hall on the north of Kaba in Mecca. It was a gathering place of the nobles (mala), built by Qassi, the ancestor of the Qoraish. It is also known that the champions who offered themselves for single combat wore distinctive signs on their armour, but nothing more specific is known of these signs or emblems. The Arab poets enjoyed to compare the flowers of the garden with the flags of different tribes, and also composed couplets to dignify the banners. For instance, S.M. Husain quotes Dajajah bin Abd al-Qais al-Tamimi in "Early Arabic Odes" Delhi, 1938, p. 161) as saying in a poem that:-

And when we found that the water of Munabid
was (our) safety, we did not tremble and we did
not foresake one another.
But we all came under the shade of our banner (7-8)

In Arabs, the principal offices in connection with the Kaba were five altogether, viz. sicaya and rifada (the exclusive privilege of supply of water and food to the pilgrims), kiyada (the command of the army), hijaba (the guardianship of Kaba), nadwa (the right of presidency of the council), and siva (the right of becoming standard bearer). Soon after the death of Abd Munaf, a family strife arose among his sons, on which account the offices were divided. Hashim (d. 510) was invested with the charge of sicaya and rifada, while the descendants of Abdul Dar retained the offices of kiyada, hijaba, nadwa and siva.

In its origin, and throughout its history until down to recent times, the banner, standard or flag executed primarily a religious purpose with an object to indicate something rather than to gather people together. The earliest known representation of Egyptian banners are those found on the votive tablet of Nar-Mer (4000-5000 B.C.) at Hierakonpolis; on this are represented four bearers, carrying poles with various emblems on the top of them. Artifacts indicate that as early as 4000 B.C., the Egyptian ships also utalized a standard. Similar standards are found in many of the ancient cultures of the Middle East. Among the Indo-Germanic peoples, the use of the flags goes back to very early times. The Athara Veda (v.xxi.12) speaks of the armies of the gods as suryaketu (sun-bannered) and the Mahabharata (x16, lxxxii.23) of the hero Meghasandhi as vanaraketana (monkey-bannered). In the Avesta (Yasna x.14) there is mention of the kine banner (gaus drafso).

The ensigns referred to in the Bible (Nu. 1:52, 2:2) were most probably of this type. The word degel (Nu. 21.9) perhaps corresponds more with the banner in the strict senses. Among the Phoenicians and Greek they were employed simply for signaling purposes in naval warfare. The Romans used at least six kinds of standard for their military and naval forces. Roman legions sometimes went into the battle behind the effigy of an eagle, wolf or bear borne at lance point. A more familiar form was the Roman cavalry flag, a square piece of cloth attached to a crossbar at the point of a spear. The Chinese were using silk flags as early as the 5th century B.C. This was so popular flag that after the fall of the Roman Empire, it was employed in Britain from the 8th century until as late as 1485.

According to "American Educator" (New York, 1973, 7th vol., p. 131), "Flags in the modern sense probably originated in either the Orient or the Middle East. More certain is the tradition that the Saracens (the Muslims) introduced true flags, including attachment to the Europeans during the Crusades." It may also be noted that the fastening of the cloth directly to the lance is recorded as an Arab peculiarity. In Europe there was usually no device on the cloth or, if there was one, it was purely ornamental.

The Arabic word for the flag is alam (pl. a'lam), meaning singpost or flag. The terms liwa and raya are also used for the flag, banner or standard. In Persian, the word band and dirafsh, and in Turkish, the bayrak is used for the banner. And as flags serve to delineate a ruler's territory, it is not surprising that one of the Turkish terms for a certain administrative unit is sancak, i.e., flag.

It is simply a piece of flexible cloth, varying in size, colour and device, but most frequently oblong or square, borne on by one edge to a staff or to a halyard, or fastened to a trident pole; used as a standard, ensign or signal and also for decoration or display. It is tied normally to a staff at least on one side to be viewed from both sides. Among the forms of flags are standards, banners, ensigns, pennants or pendants, burgees and guidons.

The English word flag first occurred in 1569. The word evolved in different European languages, such as the Scandinavian as flagg or flagga, the Germany as flagge or flacke, the Danish as flag, the Dutch as vlag or vlagghe, etc. Whether the word originated in English or other European languages, it may plausibly be supposed to be an onomatopaeic formation, expressing the notion of something flapping in the wind.

The word banner also is seen in different forms in the European languages, such as it was banare or baniere in old French, banieira or bandieira in present French, bandera in Spanish, bandum or bannum in Latin, bandwa in Gothic, etc. Banners, which were essentially heraldic, go back to 1162 by Count Philip of Fanders. In the literal sense, now chiefly historical; in poetry or elevated prose, it is applied to the standard or flag in figurative expressions. In sum, the banner is a piece of stout taffeta, or other cloth, attached by one side to the upper part of a long pole or staff, and used as the standard.

The study of the history, types, and uses of flags is called vexillology; a flag historian is termed as a vexillogist, one who collects flags is a vexillophilist; and one who carries a flag is known as a vexillary. All of these words are rooted from vexillum, the Latin word for flag. There is no hard and fast rule governing the size of the flag. The width is usually greater than the depth. There is also no universally accepted code of flag law.